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APPLETONS' 
SCIENCE TEXT-BOOKS 



ELEMENTS OF ZOOLOGY. 



APPLETONS' SCIENCE TEXT-BOOKS. 



The following works of this new series will be im- 
mediately issued ; others are to follow : 

The Elements of Chemistry. 

By Prof. F. W. CLARKE, 
Chemist of the United States Geological Survey. 

The Essentials of 
Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 

By ROGER S. TRACY, M. D., 

Author of "Handbook of Sanitary Information for Householders " 
Sanitary Inspector of the New York City Health Department.' 

A Compend of Geology. 

By JOSEPH LE CONTE, 

Professor of Geology and Natural History in the University of 
California ; author of " Elements of Geology," etc. 

Elements of Zoology. 

By C. F. HOLDER, 

Fellow of the New York Academy of Sciences, Corresponding 
Member of the Linnaean Society, etc. ; 

and J. B. HOLDER, M. D., 

Curator of Zoology of American Museum of Natural Historv 
Central Park, New York. 



Jpletons' Btimtt fet-§0oks. 



ELEMENTS OF ZOOLOGY 



BY 



C. F. HOLDER, 



FELLOW OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, CORRESPONDING 
MEMBER OF THE LINN.EAN SOCIETY, ETC., 

AND 



J. C B. HOLDER, M. D., 



CURATOR OF ZOOLOGY, AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, 
CENTRAL PARK. 




NEW YORK- 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 

I, 3, AND 5 BOND STREET. 
1884. 



•^ A. 



Copyright, 1884, 
By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. 



PREFACE. 



In the present work, that is intended as a text- 
book for schools and academies of all grades, the 
design has been to present in concise and plain Ian. 
guage, and in the light of the latest research and in- 
vestigation, the life-histories of the various groups 
that constitute the animal kingdom. Technical 
terms have only been employed where there was 
no simple equivalent, and the long tables of classi- 
fication and formulae, that can only be understood 
after a complete mastery of biological knowledge, 
have been omitted, as tending to divert the atten- 
tion of the student from the real issue. Professor 
Huxley strikes the key-note of this question when 
he says : " That the power of repeating a classifica- 
tion, with all its appropriate definitions, has any- 
thing to do with genuine knowledge, is one of the 
commonest and most mischievous delusions of both 
students and their examiners. The real business of 
the learner is to gain a true and vivid conception of 
the characteristics of what may be termed the nat- 



Vlll 



PREFACE. 



necessary, and a carefully selected bibliography 
will be found following each principal group of ani- 
mals. In the matter of illustration, representations 
of about five hundred animals and their parts have 
been given. Many of the cuts are original, and 
were designed especially to illustrate the habits of 
the animals, their economic value, etc. Others are 
from Buckley, Huxley, and various accurate sources 
already acknowledged. 

The valuable assistance of S. U. Holder is cor- 
dially acknowledged, and thanks are returned to 
Mr. Ralph N. Monroe for photographs of the Flor- 
ida crocodile and for the loan of valuable specimens ; 
also to Professor E. L. Youmans and Professor A. 
S. Bickmore for pertinent suggestions and advice. 
Acknowledgments are also made to Dr. E. P. 
Wright, of the University of Dublin, for the meas- 
urements of the gigantic shark Rhinodon ; and to W. 
Morey, Esq., of Colombo, Ceylon, for the original 
outline drawing. 

C. F. H. 

New York, November i, 1884. 



CONTENTS. 



Introduction. page 

Definition of the Subject i 

The Cell i 

Some Differences between Animals and Plants . . i 
Classification 2 

Chapter I. 
Branch I. Protozoa 4 

Chapter II. 
Branch II. Sponges (Porifera) 11 

Chapter III. 
Branch III. Jelly-Fishes, etc. (Ccelenterata) . . .15 

Chapter IV. 
Branch IV. Crinoids, Star-Fishes, etc. (Echinodermata) 33 

Chapter V. 
Branch V. Worms (Vermes) 42 

Chapter VI. 
Branch VI. Shells (Mollusca) . . . . .51 



x CONTENTS. 

Chapter VII. page 

Branch VII. Crustaceans and Insects (Arthropoda) . 76 

Chapter VIII. 
Branch VIII. Sea-Squirts (Tunicata) 145 

Chapter IX. 
Branch IX. Backboned Animals (Vertebrata) . . .150 



ZOOLOGY 



INTRODUCTION. 

Definition of the Subject. — The science that 
treats of organic nature, or living things, is termed Bi- 
ology. It is divided into Botany, that treats of plants ; 
and Zoology, that relates to animals. 

The Cell. — All animals are made up of one or more 
cells, minute globules of a jelly-like substance called 
protoplasm, as a rule inclosed in a delicate covering or 
membrane. The protoplasm of genuine cells generally 
contains minute moving granules, and a round transpar- 
ent body termed the nucleus, that contains a dark ob- 
ject, called the nucleolus. The lowest animals are single 
cells, and are termed unicellular, but in the higher forms 
the cells separate by self-division, and form two layers : 
outer {ectoderm), inner (endoderm), while a middle layer 
is called mesoderm. From these cell-layers bone and 
muscular tissue are formed, and the animals are said to 
be many-celled. 

Difference between Animals and Plants. — It is 
not difficult to distinguish between the higher forms of 
animals and plants, The trees are sightless, have no 
locomotive organs, and, as a rule, live upon inorganic 
substances ; yet there are curious points of resemblance. 



2 INTRODUCTION. 

We know that a bird eats, moves, and breathes, and that 
its blood circulates ; but plants also eat, respire through 
their leaves, have a circulation of sap, and some are 
endowed with locomotive powers. When we descend to 
the lower forms of animal and vegetable life, the points 
of similarity become almost identical ; the swift-mov- 
ing diatom so resembling some of the lowest animal 
forms that it is well-nigh impossible to distinguish be- 
tween them. The plants, however, have no nervous sys- 
tem, no special organs of circulation or digestion that 
characterize the majority of animal forms, so that an ani- 
mal differs mainly from a plant in possessing, as a rule, 
a nervous system and special organs of circulation and 
digestion. 

Classification. — The animal kingdom, that is esti- 
mated to contain one fourth of a million species, is sepa- 
rated into two primary divisions : the Protozoa, or single- 
celled animals, and the Metazoa, or those composed of 
many cells. The latter are separated into eight branch- 
es : Porifera, Coelenterata, Echinodermata, Vermes, Mollus- 
ca, Arthropoda, Timicata, Vertebrata. These are in turn 
divided until the varied forms are grouped, like with 
like. This end is attained by comparison, and the result 
is termed classification. Thus the dog, as distinguished 
from a plant, is placed primarily in the animal kingdom. 
Possessing a backbone, it is placed in the branch of 
vertebrate animals. It differs from the fishes, reptiles, 
and birds, by giving milk ; hence it is placed in the 
class of mammals. Continuing our comparisons, we find 
that, with the lions, tigers, and cats, it is a flesh- eater, 
and so is placed in the order carnivora. From its gen- 
eral appearance and form, it is associated with others 
in the family of dogs. With others that have a similar 
structure, it is given the generic name canis ; then, to 
distinguish what kind of a dog it is, wild or domestic, it 
is given a specific or specifying name, as the common 



INTRODUCTION. 3 

dog, Canis vulgaris. Hence we have the following classi- 
fication : 

DOG. 

Kingdom : of Animals. 

Branch : Backboned, Vertebrates. 

Class : Milk-givers, Mammalia. 

Order : Flesh-eaters, Carnivora, 

Family : Dogs, Canidse. 

Genus : Dog, Canis. 

Species: Canis vulgaris. 

Variety : Newfoundland. 



CHAPTER I. 

FIRST BRANCH OF ANIMALS. 
PROTOZOANS (First Animals). 

General Characteristics. — The Protozoans are one-celled 
animals, in this differing from all others. The lowest 
forms resemble microscopic bits of the white of an egg. 
They have no definite shape, and move by a bulging out 
of the body-mass into root-like projections called pseu- 
dopodia, or false feet. In the interior are minute granules 
that move about (circulate), and in all, except the lowest 
protozoans, is seen a central oval body called the nucleus, 
and a hollow, transparent space, that contracts and en- 
larges with some regularity, called the "contractile vesi- 
cle." The higher forms have silicious or calcareous shells 
"and permanent organs. 

Class I. — MONERS. 

These are shapeless bits of transparent matter (Fig. i) 
containing merely circulating granules. By extending the 
body into pseudopodia, or false feet, and contracting them, 
they glide slowly along. Their prey is seized by sur- 
rounding it with the false feet, which fuse about it, and 
the victim is absorbed into the body-mass. They repro- 
duce by simple division, or as in Fig. i. The Moner as- 
sumes a thick covering (becomes encysted), a, divides into 
spheres., b, that burst out, c, d, e, and soon assume the 
parent form,/ 




Fig. i. — Protomyxa aurantiaca. f, eating ; a and d, encysting ; c, devel- 
oping into monad-like young. 



Class II. — Rhizopoda {Animals with Root-like Feet). 

General Characteristics. — Animals resembling the mo- 
ners, but with a distinct outer and inner portion, the 
latter containing, as well as granules, several nuclei 



PROTOZOANS. 




Fig. 2. — a, Amoeba throwing out 
pseudopodia ; d, encysted. 



and contractile vesicles. They are either naked or 
shelled. 

Order I. Foraminifera {Hole- Bearers). — In the sim- 
plest form, the Amoeba (Fig. 2), the body is divided into a 

transparent outer covering, and 
an interior portion containing 
the nuclei,and circulating gran- 
ules that appear to be kept in 
motion by the pulsation of the 
contracting vesicle. It moves 
along by throwing out pseudo- 
podia, or false feet, and ingulfs 
its food — desmids, diatoms, and 
other minute forms— as does the moner. The Amoeba 
reproduces by simple division. 

Shelled Amoebae. — These forms (Fig. 3) secrete rich 
calcareous or horny chambered shells, from which are 
thrown out the false feet, 
extending in every direc- 
tion in search of prey, and 
fusing about it without the 
shell. They are generally 
minute, but one found off 
Borneo measures two inch- 
es across. They reproduce 
in different ways ; in one, 
the young resemble monads 
(Fig. 6), finally assuming 
the parent form. 

Order II. Radiolaria 
(Rayed Animals). — In these 

animals (Fig. 4) the false feet are generally pointed, and 
the shells, which are formed of silica, not lime, are richly 
ornamented with spicules, or rays, and perforated with 
openings for the pseudopodia, that secure their food, as we 
have seen in the Foraminifera. They reproduce by di- 




Fig. 3. 



-Rotalia, with extended pseu- 
dopodia. 



GREGARINIDA.— INFUSORIA. 




Fig. 



-Flint-shelied Radiolarian 
( Heliosphcera). 



vision within the shell, the 
young at first resembling 
little oval bodies, with hair- 
like tails. 

Value. — The shells of the ma- 
rine forms fall in a shower upon 
the bottom, and form chalk-beds, 
as the Dover cliffs, in England, 
thus adding to the land of the 
globe. The stone of the Pyramids 
is made up of fossil Foraminifera. 

Specimens for Study. — 
The Amoebce, can be found 
on leaves in fresh-water 

ponds. Foraminifera can be caught with a fine net in the 
ocean, or found in pools at low tide. The shells can be 
ground and mounted for the microscope. 

Class III. — GREGARINIDA. 

General Characteristics. — These (Fig. 5) are minute 
forms that take up their abode in lobsters, crabs, beetles, 
cockroaches, worms, and other animals, 
and lead a parasitic life, existing upon 
the juices of the animals they inhabit. 
They resemble minute worms ; one, 
found in the European lobster, half an 
inch in length, is called Gregarina gi- 
gantea, being the largest single-celled 
animal known. They undergo several 
curious changes before reaching mature 
growth. 




Fig. 5. — Gregarina of 
Nemertes Gesseri- 
ensi's, showing- nu- 
cleus and granu les . 



Class IV. — Infusoria. 

General Characteristics. — Animals of permanent forms 
with cilia, or hair-like organs, for locomotion and procur- 
ing food. They are either free or stalked. 



8 



PROTOZOANS. 



Order I. Flagellata (Monads). — If standing water is 
examined with a microscope, it will be found fairly alive 
with numbers of minute pear- and oval-shaped creatures, 

having, at the place 
where the stem would 
be, alash, that vibrates 
and whirls about as 
the animal moves 
along. One of. the 
Monads, the Noctilu- 
ca (Fig. 6), a giant of 
its kind, lives in the 
ocean, and in appear- 
ance resembles a cur- 
rant about the size 
of a small pin-head. 
On one side there is 
a groove, from which 
issues a single whip, 
or cilium, that is a lo- 
comotive organ, and 
near where this joins the body is the mouth. The outer 
surface of the animal is a firm membrane, beneath which 
is the jelly-like mass containing numerous granules, from 
which rises a regular network of fibers that lead over the 
entire body. The young are produced by a mere break- 
ing off of a portion of the parent. 




Fig. 6. — Giant monad Noctiluca. e, gastric 
vacuole ; g, radiating filaments. 



Note. — As many as thirty thousand of these forms have been seen 
in the ocean in a cubic inch, moving about with great rapidity, and 
producing a most wonderful phosphorescent light. 

Other monads are compound (several joined together), 
as the Uvella, while others are fixed, attached to the bottom 
by a slender stalk, as the Codosiga. Here the little hair- 
like organ is used to throw food into the mouth. Others 
of this order have their delicate forms protected by a hard 



INFUSORIA. 




Fig. 7. 



Acienttz. I 7 , attached by stalk ; 
G, encysted. 



shell, have one or several whips, or lashes, and a row of 
cilia, with which they lash themselves along with great 
velocity. 

Order II. Suctoria. — This order is represented by 
the Acienta (Fig. 7), beautiful, trumpet-like animals re- 
sembling the purest glass. 
From the body project 
numerous slender tufts 
that are not cilia, but hol- 
low tentacles (arms), hav- 
ing in some a sucker at 
their ends. Their prey 
is grasped by the arms, 
that contract, each at the 
same time sinking into 
the body of the victim, 

pumping or sucking out its juices. They multiply by self- 
division, while some species have free-swimming young. 

Order III. Ciliata. — These are the true Infusorians, 
easily observed with a common microscope, a drop of 
standing water furnishing myriads. They are either 
free and covered with cilia, or stalked, with the cilia 
about the head. They have a mouth, a digestive cavity, 
or stomach, and multiply by self-division or budding. 
Among the free swimmers, the Paramecium (Fig. 8) are 
the giants, and easily observed if a little carmine is intro- 
duced into the drop. As they dart about, we see that 
they are oblong, narrowing at the head, the back rising 
into quite an elevation, beneath which, upon the under 
side, is the mouth. From the head and on all sides are 
minute prolongations of the body, or cilia, arranged in 
rows, organs of locomotion. The Vorticellce, (Fig. 9), or 
bell animalcules, are bell-shaped, and held by a long, 
slender, glass-like stalk, by which they contract. A colony 
of them presents a curious sight ; the bells are continually 
contracting, as if jerked from behind, the stalk forming a 






IO 



PROTOZOANS. 



perfect screw in the operation. They multiply by a sim- 
ple division (Fig. 9, c) or by budding (d, d). 




FlG. 8. — Paramecium 
dursaria, showing 
cilia, c, contractile 
vacuole ; d, food. 




Fig. 9. — Vorticellce. a, extended ; 
fr, coiled ; c, division ; d, d, free- 
swimming buds. 



Works on Protozoans for further reference, 

" The Atlantic, and Depths of the Sea," Sir Wyvillc Thomson ; 
Carpenter " On the Microscope " ; " Mind in Nature," H. J. Clark ; 
Leidy's " Fresh-Water Rhizopods" ; Pritchard's "Infusoria" ; " Man- 
ual of Invertebrates," T. H. Huxley ; " Challenger Reports " ; " Even- 
ings at the Microscope," Gosse ; Thompson's " Monthly Microscopical 
Journal "; "The Quarterly Microscopical Journal"; Bastian's "Ori- 
gin of Lowest Organisms, and Beginnings of Life " ; " Notices of Pro- 
tozoa," by Professor Leidy, in " Proceedings of Philadelphia Academy 
of Natural Sciences " ; " Water turned to Blood by Red Infusoria," in 
" Popular Science Monthly," vol. iv, p. 202. 



CHAPTER II. 



SECOND BRANCH OF ANIMALS. 



SPONGES (Porifera, pore-bearing). 

General Characteristics. — The sponges were for many 
years considered plants, but now they are known to be 
many-celled animals. In the Ascctta (Fig. 10), we have 
a vase-shaped cylinder, /, composed of cells arranged in 
three layers. In the second or middle layer is developed 
a network of ob- 
jects of silex or lime, 
called spicules (Fig. 
it), that form the 
skeleton, and sup- 
port the cellular, jel- 
ly-like mass. The 
walls of the vase are 
everywhere perfo- 
rated with pores, J>, 
through which water 
passes, carrying food. 
The cells of the in- 
ner layer are pro- 
vided with a cilium, 
or lash, 777, and, 
taken individually, 

resemble monads. As food floats by, each cilium throws 
the minute bits against its cell ; the soft portion is absorbed, 
the harder parts being rejected, and, wafted along by the 
cilia, find egress at the single large opening, O. In this 




Fig. ii. 



-Spicules of flint-sponges, highly 
magnified. 



12 



SPONGES. 




Fig. io. — Ascetta primordialis. I. o, exhalent opening ; p, inhalent pores ; 
g, ova. Star-like spicules are seen on the outside. II. Section showing 
pores (p), with cilia of the cells extending into them. III. Cell show- 
ing lash, or cilium. IV. Same, with lash retracted. V. Embryo of As- 
cetta mirabilis. VI. Section of embryo. 



LIME-SPONGES.- CARNEOSPONGI^. 



way the Ascetta feeds. Other sponges differ from it in 
having a shapeless form, many large outlets instead of 
one, and numerous sacs lined with ciliated cells. 

Development. — The young are at first free swimmers, 
being produced from eggs, 
escaping into the water as 
oblong little creatures, with 
numerous cilia, V. They 
soon become attached to 
the bottom, spicules appear, 
and they gradually assume 
the parent form. 

Order I. Lime-Spon- 
ges (Calcispongioe). — In 
these, the spicules are made 
of lime, and the canals lined 
with ciliated cells. They 
are few in number, and may 
be represented by the little 
white sponge, Sycon ciliatum, 
common in the sea-weed of 
the Eastern Shore. 

Order II. Carneo- 
spongiae. — The spicules 
of these forms are either 
fibrous and horny, or sili- 
cious, and the ciliated cells 
are only found in little 
cavities, or stomachs. To 
this order belong a host of 
beautiful forms : the com- 
mon sponges of commerce, 
the fresh-water Spongilla, 

the wondrous Holtenia, and the Eupleciella, or Venus's 
flower-basket (Fig. 12). 




Fig. 12. 



-Skeleton of Euplectella 
speciosa. 



14 



SPONGES. 



Value of Sponges. — There are six species of sponges valued in 
commerce ; three are found in America, in Key West and the Baha- 
mas, the others coming from the Mediterranean and Red Seas. Nearly 
all the flints are the remains of ancient sponges. 

Specimens for Study. — Sponges are difficult to keep in 
the aquarium. In our Northern fresh-water ponds, the 
Siphydora is common, and, in streams, the Spongi/la, while 
various kinds can be found along the coast. In default 
of living specimens, the common toilet-sponge should be 
used, and sections made with a razor for examination 
under the microscope. 

Works on Sponges for further reference. 
" The Glass Sponges," by Rev. Samuel Lockwood, in " Popular 
Science Monthly," vol. iii, p. 529 ; "The Common Fresh- Water Sponge, 
Spongilla" by Professor W. C. Williamson, in " Popular Science Re- 
view," January, 1868 ; " North American Poriferse," by A. Hyatt, in 
"Memoirs of Boston Society of Natural History"; "Life Histories 
of Animals," by A. S. Packard, Jr. ; " The Atlantic, and Depths of 
the Sea," Sir Wyville Thomson. 




A Syrian sponger. 



CHAPTER III. 

THIRD BRANCH OF ANIMALS. 
HYDROIDS, Etc. {Ccelenterata, hollow intestine). 

General Characteristics. — A simple sac, as the Hydra, 
composed of two-cell layers, possessing a stomach, or di- 
gestive cavity. The mouth is encircled by tentacles, which 
are hollow, and connect with the stomach. 



Class I. — Hydrozoa. 

Order I. Hydroids. — One of the commonest animals 
of the aquarium, if the water is taken from the brook or 
stream, is the Hydra 
(Fig. 13)— a simple, 
elongated stomach 
one quarter of an 
inch in length, end- 
ing in a mouth that 
is surrounded by from 
five to eight tentacles 
that are extensions of 
the body, hollow, and 
connecting with it. 
If examined closely, 
myriads of small cells 
will be seen, many of 
which contain deli- 
cate threads or darts, called lassoes, that are thrown out 
as weapons of defense (Fig. 14). By cutting a Hydra 




Fig. 13. — Fresh-water Hydra viridis. 1. 
Long-armed Hydra feeding on small ani- 
mals, a. 2. Hydra fusca throwing off 
young Hydra-buds. 



l6 LIME-SECRETING HYDRO IDS. 

into sections, each will soon produce a crown of tentacles, 
and grow into a perfect animal. The Hydra can be 
turned inside out, and within an hour recover its natural 





Fig. 14.— Lasso-cells of Hydra. 1. Arm of Hydra, containing cells. 
2. Cell magnified. 3. Cell after bursting open. 

position ; more marvelous yet, if when so treated it is spit- 
ted with a pin or needle so that it can not turn, it will eat 
and reproduce its kind as if nothing had occurred. Some 
are solitary, while others live in colonies. They repro- 
duce by budding (Fig. 13, b, b) and by eggs. 

Lime-secreting Hydroids {Millepord). — Some of 
the Hydroids secrete lime. They resemble true corals in 
appearance, and were long considered as such. Under 
the microscope, it will be seen that the lime secreted is 
tunneled by numerous canals which in life are filled by the 
animal. The polyps are of two kinds, and, in a millepore 
found at Tahiti, they are in groups, the largest being stout 
polyps, with four tentacles, a stomach, and mouth ; but 
the polyps about it, rising from the smaller pores, have no 
mouth or stomach, but many tentacles, whose duty is to 
capture food for the short, thick-set polyp between them. 
Some of the Hydroids, instead of bearing young like them- 
selves, produce perfect jelly-fishes {Medusoe) ; such is the 
Campanularia (Fig. 15), that throws off, by budding, a free 
jelly-fish (3), that in turn produces eggs that become, not 
jelly-fishes, but fixed Hydroids (1). This is called alternate 
generation. The free-swimming young are often brilliant- 
ly luminous, presenting a wondrous appearance on dark 
nights. 



DISCOPHORA. 



17 



The Monocaulus is a gigantic Hydroid, seven feet high, 
and nine inches across the expanded tentacles, living in 
the Atlantic at a depth of four miles below the surface. 
Many of the so-called mosses that are common on the 
shore, and are pressed as sea- weed, are in reality compound 
Hydroids enclosed in horny cells, as the Sertularia. 




Fig 15.— Campanularia. 1. Natural size. 2. Animal magnified : S, sac 
containing jelly-bell ; a a, animal feeding. 3. Free-swimming young, 
magnified. 3', natural size of jelly-bell. 

Order II. Discophora— We now come to jelly- 
fishes that are developed directly from eggs, as Pelagia 
campanella, or, as in Aurelia, produced from a Hydra 
form (Fig. 17, 1). They vary in size, from the little 
Lucernaria that attaches itself to weeds by a sucking 
disk, to the gigantic Cyanea, that is from two to seven 
feet in diameter, with tentacles over one hundred feet m 
length. 



i8 



HYDRO IDS, ETC. 



These jellies are disk-shaped, the tentacles in Cya- 
nea hanging in eight distinct bunches from the margin, 
and armed with darts or lasso-cells, that form terrible 




Fig. 16.— Adult Aurelia, showing the water-vascular canals. 

weapons of defense. Around the fringed margin are 
eight protected eyes. The mouth - opening is square, 
leading into a large stomach, from which radiate four 
branching tubes (Fig. 16) called water-vascular canals. 

They form a network at the 
edge, and connect with a tube 
that encircles the margin of 
the disk. Through these 
branches digested food and 
water circulates, or finds its 
way over the body. A some- 
what similar arrangement is 
found in all jelly-fishes. In 
swimming, the disk contracts 
„ _ r A and expands in regular time, 

Fig. 17. — Development of Au- r . 

reiia. 1. Early stage. 2. averaging twelve or fifteen times 

Jelly-fish ready to break off. a minute. 




FRESH- WA TER JELL Y -FISHES. 



19 



Note.— In specimens of Aurelia, 95.84 per cent of the animal is 
water ; the solid matter in any jelly-fish is rarely over five per cent of 
the whole. 

Fresh-Water Jelly-Fishes— These have recently 
been discovered in England. They are one third of an 




FlG. 18. — A jelly-fish swimming {Pelagid). 



inch in diameter, and probably come from some warm 
climate, as they are only active when the temperature of 
the water is about 85 . 



20 



COMPOUND HYDRO IDS, 



Developme?it of Discophora. — They multiply by eggs 
that are deposited in the autumn, and are at first spheri- 
cal, quickly changing to a pear-shape, and attaching them- 
selves to rocks or weed. Now, 
tentacles appear (Fig. 17, 1), 
varying in number from eight 
to twenty-four, and after eight- 
een months the pear divides 
off into disks until we have a 
pile of scalloped saucers one 
upon another (2). The high- 
est one dies, while all the rest 
break off and swim away, lit- 
tle jelly-fishes, that in time 
grow into the gigantic Cyanea 
or others, as the case may be. 

Value. — They form the food of 
some whales and fishes. 

Note. — The gigantic Cyanea af- 
fords a home under its curtains for 
numbers of fishes and several crus- 
taceans, while in its mouth-folds 
lives a long, tapering sea-anemone 
{Bicidium parasiticum), that in many 
cases mimics in color that of its 
protector. 

Order III. Siphonopho- 

ra. — These are the most beau- 
tiful of the Hydroids, and 
are rarely seen in the North. 
They are free-swimming colo- 
nies. The Portuguese man- 
o'-war, or Physalia (Fig. 19), is a mere bubble, seemingly 
of the finest satin, that floats upon the surface. From the 
upper portion rises at will a fluted membrane, colored with 
delicate tints of pink, that is used as a sail ; from the low- 




Fig. 19. — Portuguese man-o'-war, 
Physalia Arethusa. 



SEA-ANEMONES AND CORAL POLYPS. 21 

er portion extends a mass of tentacles of the richest blue, 
and, from their armament of lasso-cells, of the most dan- 
gerous character. They are called Zooids, and are of 
four kinds. Some aid in locomotion, some are reproduc- 
tive, while others are feeders for the entire colony. The 
tentacles are dragged from twenty to one hundred feet or 
more behind. The beautiful filaments form tempting baits 
when lowered, and in this way the Physalia feeds. The 
man-o'-war generally has several tenders, little fishes of 
the genus Scombridce, of the exact color of the death- 
dealing tentacles, that live under and among them, a won- 
derful case of mimicry.* 

Allied to the Physalia are the Porpita and Velella. 
The latter also floats upon the surface, a raft bearing a 
silvery sail, while beneath is the same rich coloring of the 
Physalia. 

Works on Hydroids for further reference. 

" Acalephs ( Jelly-Fishes) of North America, with Pictures of most 
of the Species in Catalogue of Museum of Comparative Zoology," by 
A. Agassiz ; L. Agassiz, " Contributions to the Natural History of the 
United States," vol. iv ; " Sea-side Studies in Natural History," 
Agassiz ; " Sertularian Zoophytes of the Coast of England," T. 
Hincks; "Popular Science Review," 1878, p. 223; Huxley's "Man- 
ual of Invertebrates" ; "Challenger Reports." 

Class II.— Sea-Anemones and Coral Polyps 
{Actinozod). 

General Characteristics. — These are well represented 
by the sea-anemone, or Actinia (Fig. 20). In appearance 

* The author once swam over the tentacles of a Physalia with an 
almost fatal result ; the blue marks were plainly visible six or eight 
months after. These fishes not only mimic the color of the tentacles, 
but assume vertical positions, so that they seem actually a part of 
them. I have often lifted the man-o'-war, which can be safely done 
by the " sail," and the fishes that were previously unnoticed would 
dart about in the greatest alarm. A more remarkable case of protective 
mimicry is not known. 



22 



HYDROIDS, ETC. 



they resemble cylinders attached to the bottom, the oppo- 
site end containing the mouth, which is surrounded by 
numbers of hollow tentacles, armed with lasso-cells (Fig. 
21), while near the base of the tentacles are the minute 





Fig. 21. — Lasso-cell of an anemone. 



Fig. 20. — Anemone with ten- 
tacles expanded, attached 
by sucking disc to the bot- 
tom. 




Fig. 22. — Cross-section of anem- 
one, showing septa. 



eye-spots. If a dead anemone that has become somewhat 
hardened is cut open vertically, we first notice the stom- 
ach, that, divided into mouth and stomach proper, seems 
suspended in the body, held in place by six partitions 
(Mesenteries) (Fig. 22), that divide it into as many sec- 
tions, which are again divided by others. Each of the 
six principal partitions is perforated with an opening, and 
the chambers connect with the tentacles, so that water, 
and food captured by the tentacles, is taken in at the 
mouth, and penetrates, by the opening at the bottom of 
the stomach, to every part of the animal. 

The anemones vary greatly in size, from delicate un- 
attached forms that live up among the folds of the great 
jelly-fish Cyanea to enormous ones two feet across. The 



CORAL-MAKING POLYPS. 



23 



Cerianthus of the Philippine Islands, with its thread-cells, 
builds a sheath or leathery tube one foot four inches in 
length, that is sunk into the mud. 

Developvient. — Anemones multiply by budding, or, if 
pieces of the disk are cut or torn off, they will grow into 
anemones. They also deposit eggs, the young being at 
first free swimmers, by means of cilia, finally becoming 
fixed upon the bottom, and assuming the adult form. 

Note. — In their habits they are remarkable. One observed by 
Dr. Collingwood in the China Sea was two feet in diameter, giving 
shelter in its stomach to a little fish, that, when danger approached, 
rushed into its protector, whose tentacles closed up like a door. A 
fish, known as Premnas biaculeatus, also lives within the stomach of 
the anemone, Actinia crassicornis. Some live a roving life, like the 
Adamsia, that is often found upon the back of the hermit-crab, that, 
upon leaving its shell, obliges its friend, the anemone, to change also. 
The Urticina is luminous. 

Value. — The anemones are great purifiers, and are eaten in vari- 
ous parts of the world. 

Coral-making Polyps. — The coral animal may be 
considered an anemone that has the power of secreting 
lime. In the star-coral (Astrea), the young is seen at the 
end of June — a little oblong-shaped body, swimming about 
by its cilia, or oars. It soon attaches itself to the bottom, 
and, if in a few days it should be removed, there would 
be found a little platform with radiating partitions of lime 
alternating with the soft ones that we have seen in the 
anemone. If allowed to grow, tentacles soon appear ; 
other small partitions are now secreted, that extend to 
the outer wall, which is also being secreted ; and, finally, 
we have a coral polyp, from which others branch, until 
large blocks are formed of many individuals, but all con- 
nected. So it will be seen that the coral is not an insect, 
neither does it erect or build its house any more than a 
man builds his skeleton, but is a lime-secreting animal, 
pure and simple. 



24 DEEP-WATER CORALS. . 

The corals that we are familiar with have been bleached, 
but when taken from the water they are of various shades 
of olive and brown. 

Single-Polyp Corals. — The Fungia, or Mushroom- 
Coral, often attains a length of twelve inches, and is a sin- 
gle polyp, in which the radiating septa are plainly seen. 
They are the commonest forms of the greater depths ; ten 
genera live in water a mile deep, four at nearly two miles, 
while the Fungia symmetrica has been found in from one 
hundred and eighty feet to three and a half miles of water. 
The Caryophyllia is a common form in the Mediterranean. 
Some are luminous. 

Branch-Coral (Madreporidce). — The Branch or Tree 
Coral of Florida (Fig. 23) is a familiar example, and the 



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Fig. 23. — Madrepore. Dead and living branch. 

sides of deep channels in the reef bristle with it, the coral 
growing in perpendicular walls and covering the reef in 
vast patches, affording protection to myriads of animals. 
The Leaf-Coral spreads out in great leaves several feet in 
width. The Branch-Corals grow seven or eight inches a 
year, contrary to general belief. 

Porites. — These polyps are extremely minute, having 
twelve short tentacles, and form large oval heads, weigh- 
ing many thousand pounds. Many die in the center, and 
become hollowed out like gigantic vases, and are pene- 
trated with worms, that, when expanded, resemble flowers 



BRAIN-CORALS.— STAR-CORALS. 25 

Brain-Corals (Meandrina)* — These corals form in 
great heads twelve to fifteen feet in diameter. The polyps 
are arranged in trenches resembling the convolutions of 
the brain, They grow rapidly. Fig. 24 shows a head of 
Meandrina convexa that doubled its diameter in a year, 
or grew at the rate of one inch a year under unfavorable 




Fig. 24. — Meandrina convexa, Tortugas, Florida, growth of which was 
watched by Dr. J. B. Holder and the author. 

circumstances, being kept by the author in an aquarium, 

or inclosure, of dead-coral rock, through which the tide 
rose and fell. 

Star-Corals (Astrea). — In the Astreas the polyps are 
very large, some having a diameter of two inches, almost 
as large as some anemones. The tentacles are of various 
shades — green, purple, gray, and blue tints. They attain 
a weight of several tons. 

* Meandrina spongiosa, common on the Florida reef, floats upon 
the surface when deprived of the animal matter, and is known as 
floating coral. 

2 



2 6 CORAL REEFS. 

Northern Coral (Astrangia). — This beautiful coral 
may be found in Long Island Sound, near New Haven, 
and on the New Jersey shore. The polyps are pure white, 




Fig. 25. — Astrcea pallida (living). 

standing high above the cells. The tentacles are covered 
with lasso-cells, each about t ^q of an inch in length. It 
thrives well in the aquarium. 

Coral Reefs. — These are banks or shoals of dead or 
living coral at or below the surface. The tops of sub- 
merged hills and elevations gradually approach the surface 
by the accumulation of organic matter, principally from 
the continuous falling* of shells of Rhizopoda and Fora- 
minifera (Fig. 3), and other forms, until finally a platform 
of limestone is built that reaches within forty or fifty feet 
of the surface. Now, the reef-making corals, Madrepores, 
etc., that do not flourish in deeper water, become fixed, 
grow, and accumulate, with Gorgonias and other forms, 
until they reach the surface. Seeds, perhaps of the man- 
grove, now obtain a footing, and the reef in time becomes 
a coral key or island. 

* It has been estimated by Murray that, if lime-secreting organisms 
are as numerous down to a depth of six hundred feet as they are near 
the surface, there would be more than sixteen tons of calcareous shells 
or carbonate of lime in the uppermost one hundred fathoms of every 
square mile of the ocean. 



BARRIER REEFS.— ATOLLS. 



2 7 



Barrier Reefs. — This name is given to reefs formed 
as above, but distant from the shore, and separated from 
it by deep water, as the reef, one thousand miles long and 
thirty miles from shore, on the Australian coast. 

Fringing Reefs. — These are formed near the shore, 
generally in smooth water, having no great depth between 
them and the adjacent land. 

Atolls. — When a reef reaches the surface, the waves 
from the side of the prevailing winds grind up the dead 



- 




Fig. 26. — Atoll in the Pacific Ocean. 



coral, and wash it over in the form of mud and sand, 
where it settles in smooth water. Here branching corals, 
that give shelter to innumerable animals, nourish, as well 
as lime-secreting algae,* all continually growing and being 
ground up by fishes and worms, and disintegrated by the 
solvent action of the carbonic acid in the water, until 
finally a shallow lagoon or flat is formed, wholly or partly 

* This is one of the most important factors of lagoon and key 
making. The keys of Tortugas, especially Sand Key, are made up 
almost entirely of these limy plates, as well as broken shells. 



2 8 HYDROIDS, ETC. 

surrounded by the reef (Fig. 26), and cut up by currents 
into deep channels. Such is the atoll forming at Tortu- 
gas, Florida, where the lagoon is fast filling up, and will 
eventually become dry land. The shape of atolls is due 
to the foundation upon which they are formed, currents, 
winds, etc. 

Note. — An important factor in mud-making is the Holothurian. 
Those at St. Solomon Islands have been found to eject two fifths of a 
pound of mud a day, so that sixteen animals would grind up a ton a 
year ; and as in some places the bottom is fairly covered with them, the 
amount of work of this kind done by a single animal can be imagined. 

Works on Actinozoans for further reference. 

Dana's " Corals and Coral Islands" ; " Our Sea- Anemones," by A 
E. Verrill ; "American Naturalist," vol. ii, p. 251 ; " Sea-Anemones," 
" Popular Science Monthly," vol. vii, p. I ; " Arachnactis Brachiolata, 
a Floating Actinia," A. Agassiz, " Boston Journal of Natural History," 
vol. vii, p. 525 ; " Animal Life," Semper ; " Sea-Side Studies," Agassiz ; 
" Smithsonian Reports " ; " Challenger Reports " ; " The Atlantic, and 
Depths of the Sea," Sir Wyville Thomson ; Darwin's " Structure of 
Coral Reefs " ; " Fauna Americana," J. B. Holder ; " Transactions 
American Academy," vol. xi, 1883, Agassiz ; " Proceedings of Royal 
Society of Edinburgh, i879-'8o," Murray. 

Value of Stony Corals.— The stony corals form islands. The 
fossil coral, Favosites, is polished and much used in jewelry. Fossil 
coral found in Cuba is much used in building. Calcined coral is used 
as a dentifrice and as an antacid. 

Order II. Alcyonarians.— The animals that secrete 
a horny or calcareous stock without true dividing parti- 
tions or septa, are called Alcyonarians. Such are the sea- 
fans (Gorgonias), yellow, lilac, and black, sea-pens, the red 
coral of commerce, and many others. 

Red Coral. — In the red coral, Corallium rubrutn (Fig. 
27), the axis p is calcareous, and composed of fused 
spicules, varying in color. When alive, the polyps, II, b, b, 
which are pure white, are connected by a series of com- 
plicated tubes, /. The tentacles are eight in number, and 



RED CORAL. 



2 9 



when spread out are extremely beautiful. The young are 
at first free swimming (III and IV). Another curious 
form is the organ-pipe coral, formed of upright tubes. 




Fig. 27. — Red coral (C. rubrum). I. Branch showing polyps closed and ex- 
panded : k, mouth. II. Section of branch: k, mouth; m, stomach; 
/, canals ; /i, irregular canals ; P, hard axis. III and IV. Free-swim- 
ming embryo, showing the cilia, or oars. 



30 GORGONIAS. 

Value. — Eighty thousand pounds have been collected in one year. 
In 1873 Algeria alone employed 311 vessels and 3,150 men, realizing 
$565,000. The entire yearly collection is valued at over $1,000,000. 

Sea-Fans {Gorgonias). — The Gorgonias (Fig. 28) grow- 
in the shape of fans or plumes, branching like trees and 
shrubs. The stock secreted is either horny or calcareous. 
Those of the Florida reef are often three feet high and 
two wide, while the Primnoa, found on the Banks of New- 




Fig. 28. — Sea-fan. 

foundland, grows to a height of over five feet, the branches 
or stem being as thick as a boy's arm. Their surfaces 
are network, through which are delicate canals connect- 
ing the animals. On the Gorgonia fiabellum lives a shell 
of the same color — a curious case of mimicry. 

Value. — They are made into whips, canes, etc. 

Sea-Pens {Pennatulidce). — The sea-pens are fixed or 
free-swimming polyps. A gigantic one ( U7?ibellnlarid), 
four feet high, lives in the Arctic regions, a mile and a 
half from the surface ; another, ten inches long ( Veretil- 



COMB-BEARERS. 



31 



/urn), is found off the coast of Spain, and noted, as are 
all the Alcyonarians, for its luminous properties.* 



Class III. — Comb-bearers (Ctenophora). 

These are jelly-like animals, having, as organs of loco- 
motion, vertical rows of comb-like paddles, that move up 
and down in exact measure as they 
travel along, glistening with rain- 
bow-like hues. So vast are their 
numbers that in the North they 
often color the sea. They are not 
only iridescent but luminous, their 
very eggs and embryos giving out 
light. The Bolina, Beroe, Idyia, 
Cestum y and Plenrobrachia (Fig. 
29), are all common on our New 
England shores. The eggs are de- 
posited singly, as in Pleurobrachia, 
or in strings, as in Boli?ia y in the 
autumn or last of summer, the 
young passing through no changes, 
and resembling the parent as soon 
as hatched. 

Specimens for Study. — The Hy- 
dra can be found in any pond during the summer months, 
and the salt-water forms from old piles and rocks along 
the shore. Jelly-fish can be preserved in alcohol by grad- 

* All the Alcyonarians dredged by the Challenger were wonder- 
fully luminous, and the bottom of the sea is undoubtedly lighted to a 
more or less degree in this way. Great patches of light have been 
seen sixty feet below the surface, while the small forms in shoaler 
water vie with those of the greater depths. Professor Moscley exam- 
ined the light of three Alcyonarians with the spectroscope, and found 
it to consist of red, yellow, and green rays only. A glass containing 
numbers of the Veretilhim has given out light sufficient to read by, 
and was distinguishable for some distance. 




Fig. 29. — Pleurobrachia. 



32 



HYDROIDS, ETC. 



ually adding it to the water they are in. Small jellies 
should be treated to a weak solution of osmic acid, one 
tenth per cent water ; this hardens their tissues. To pre- 
vent animals from closing up, kill in chromic acid (one 
and one half per cent), and place in alcohol. Living 
coral (Astrangia) can be dredged in Long Island Sound. 
Specimens can be hardened for sectional examination in 
osmic acid. 




A ship sailing at night through phosphorescent animals, as noctiluca 
(Fig. 6), jelly-fishes, ascidians, etc. 



CHAPTER IV. 



FOURTH BRANCH OF ANIMALS. 



STAR-FISHES, SEA-URCHINS, Etc. {Echinodermata). 

General Characteristics. — Marine radiate animals, hav- 
ing a calcareous skeleton made up of many plates. They 
possess a nervous system, and are distinguished, especially 
from the former groups, in having a tube-like digestive 
canal, distinct and separate from the cavity of the body. 

Skeleton. — By making a vertical section of the common 
star-fish (Fig. 30), we find that the skeleton is made up 




Fig. 30. — Section of one ray of star-fish. A, central body ; S, stomach ; m, 
mouth ; //, madreporic plate ; r, ring about the mouth ; B, ray ; sj>, 
spines set in leathery coat ; c, pedicellariae ; e, eye ; /, t, tubular feet ; 
v, v, vesicles for supplying feet with water ; z, liver. 



of calcareous plates, connected by a leathery integument, 
and covered by the skin, having spaces between them to 
allow the ingress of water. The plates increase by addi- 
tions to their edges ; thus their shape is preserved. The 
si/ines, or defensive organs, sp (Fig. 30), work on a ball- 
and-socket plan, and among them occur worm-like append- 



34 



STAR-FISHES, SEA-URCHINS, ETC. 



ages called pedicellaricz, c, having three calcareous jaws. 
Between the arms, on the upper surface, is a hard, flat, 
pinkish body, perforated with holes, called "the madre- 
poric plate," h. The under surface of the rays is chan- 
neled, the plates being pierced with four rows of minute 
holes. 

Internal Organs. — The mouth, //z, is on the under sur- 
face, and leads into the stomach, s, which is seen ex- 
tending into the rays, ending in a short intestine, to 
which is attached the green, branching liver, /. About 
the mouth extends a ring, that throws off a delicate 
nerve to the eye, e, at the tip of each ray ; other cords 
also extend to each sucker, / /, this constituting the nerv- 
ous system. 

Circulation. — There is a system of blood-vessels, but 




Fig. 31. — Pentacrinus caput medusa. 



what is called the water-vascular system is most impor- 
tant, aiding in both locomotion and respiration. Water is 
taken in at the sieve-like madreporic plate h, flows down 
a tube, called the "stone canal," into the circular canal, 



STAR-FISHES. 



35 



r, that encircles the mouth ; here it flows into tubes that 
branch into each ray, then into numerous sacs, or am- 
pullae, v v, that have long extensions provided with suck- 
ers. By the contraction of the sacs, water fills the exten- 
sions that penetrate the four rows of holes, and they ap- 
pear as feet, suckers, or locomotive organs, tt. 



Class I. — Crinoids {Lily-form). 

Eight living genera of these forms are known. One 
of the most beautiful, the Pentacrinus, is found in deep 
water off the West In- 
dia Islands. They may 
be described as inverted 
star-fishes growing on 
stems. Some are always 
fastened to the bottom 
(Fig. 31), while others 
break off when attaining 
a mature growth and 
lead a wandering life, 
as the Antedon. In the 
Pentacrinus the stem is 
about a foot long, resem- 
bling pentagonal but- 
tons piled one upon 
another, sending off at intervals short whorls of branches 
that are jointed in a similar way. The stem is rooted in 
the mud, while the animal is cup-shaped, presenting the 
appearance of a bunch of rich, waving plumes. These 
are the arms, arranged about the mouth, closing over it, 
or spreading out at will. The Crinoid {Antedon) is found 
in the Gulf of Maine. They multiply by eggs, that pass 
through several complex changes before assuming the 
parent form. 




Fig. 32. — Sand-star. 



36 STAR-FISHES, SEA-URCHINS, ETC. 

Class II. — Star-Fishes {Aster oidea). 

The star-fishes assume the most varied and curious 
shapes. In Sand-stars (Fig. 32), the body is a mere flat- 
tened disk, the arms branching out suddenly, often round 
and snake-like, while the feet have no suckers, and appear 
from the sides of the rays instead of the bottom. The 
Ophiacantha spinulosa is not merely a star in shape, but is 
highly luminous. Some, as the Ophiothcla, divide them- 
selves spontaneously, the body looking as if it had been 
chopped in two ; the two halves become separate indi- 
viduals, new arms growing from the severed parts. In 
one of the brittle stars, known as the basket-fish, the arms 
are divided into many branches of twos — bifurcating, as it 
is called — and resemble, when coiled, a bail of snakes. 
They live in the coral reefs of the South, and are often 
found off the New England coast. 

Development. — The young are produced from eggs, some, 
as OpMoeoma vivipara, appearing at once in adult form, 




Fig. 33.— Development of common star-fish. A, free-swimming form ; 
A', later stage settling on the bottom ; B, same assuming star- 



shape. 



while others (Fig. 33) are at first minute sacs swimming 
by aid of cilia, undergoing many changes, finally in two 
or three years assuming the adult shape. The common 
star-fish (Fig. 34) preys upon the oyster. 



STAR-FISHES. 



37 




Fig. 34.— The star-fish at home (Asterias Forhsii), showing upper and 
under sides. 



Note.— Not all star-fishes have five rays. The Brisinga has 
from nine to twenty, the Solaster, found on the New England coast, 
eleven ; while others have thirteen or fourteen. The great star-fish 
Asterias discoida is often inhabited by a living fish {Oxybeles lumbri- 
coides). 



38 



STAR-FISHES, SEA-URCHINS, ETC. 



Class III. — Sea-Urchins (Echinoidcd). 

General Cha7-acteristics. — The egg-shaped skeleton (Fig. 
35) is made up of about six hundred hard, six-sided plates 
in double rows, containing perhaps 3,720 pores for the emis- 
sion of the tube-like feet. The star-fish is a sucker, but 
the Echinus a biter, having five long calcareous teeth that 
meet at a point, m (Fig. 35), and are renewed as they wear 
away. They are moved by a 
complicated system of mus- 
cles, and held in place by a 
leathery skin. The body is 





Fig. 35. — Skeleton of sea-urchin 
without spines, m, mouth ; 
f h, foot-holes ; wh, madre- 
poric plate ; e, eyes ; s, sock- 
ets of large spines. 

covered with about 4,000 

spines, each of which is made FlG 36 ._ Jaws of p ed iceUaria. 

up of hollow tubes, and works Highly magnified. 

on a ball-and-socket plan, s. 

Among these spines are over 2,000 suckers, or feet, of three 
different kinds : 1, suckers proper ; 2, and most frequently 
found near the mouth, pedicellariae (Fig. 36), whose calca- 
reous jaws are continually opening and shutting in loco- 
motion and defense ; and 3, stalked button-like bodies 
called sphceridia, probably organs of taste. The same 



SEA- C UC UMBERS. 



39 



madreporic plate, w h, and a similar circulatory system are 
found as in the star-fishes. 

Development. — They are produced from eggs, the free- 
swimming young passing through many changes (Fig. 37). 
In some Echini the young are pro- 
duced without changes. The Her- 
miaster holds its young in a regular 
sac, while the eggs and young in 
others are held in place by the 
spines that fold about them like so 
many protective arms. 



Class IV. — Sea -Cucumbers 
{HolotJmroidcd) . 

In these animals (Fig. 38) the 
body is long and worm-like, and 
resembles a rough-skinned cucum- 
ber. Looking down upon the 
mouth, that is surrounded by ten- 
tacle-like gills, their radiate char- 
acter is seen, and by laying open 
the body a similar disposition of 
muscles may be noticed. The 
madreporic plate or strainer is in- 
ternal. The feet are in five se- 
ries, each consisting of five rows, 
by which they move slowly along. 

The skin of Holothurians is leathery, and contains num- 
bers of curious bodies resembling dumb-bells, wheels, 
and anchors (Fig. 39). The Holothuria Floridiana is in- 
habited by a fish, the Fierasfer* In the Holothuria sea- 

* In many observed by the author on the Florida reef they invariably 
died as soon as taken from the Holothurians ; but in the aquarium at 
Naples they have been seen to leave their home and return tail first, 
the action of the Holothurian in taking in water helping them in. 




Fig. 37. — Development of 
sea - urchin. A, free- 
swimming young ; 0, #, 
lime rods ; b, urchin 
forming within. B, later 
form, showing spines. 



40 



STAR-FISHES, SEA-URCHINS, ETC. 



bra of Zamboanga lives an entirely different fish (Enchely- 
op his vermicular is). 




Fig. 38.— Sea-cucumber {Holothuria lutea), showing tentacle-like gills. 



Note. — The common Pentactes of the North lies buried in the sand, 
the tentacle-like gill, resembling mosses of various kinds. In some 
species they look like toadstools ; others resemble broad leaves or short, 
delicate shrubs, and, when concealed in the sand, these mimicking 
mouth-parts are thrust up, and wave to and fro in the current, deceiv- 
ing the shrewdest of their enemies. 

Development. — The young are devel- 
oped much as in the star-fishes ; some 
are at first free swimmers by means of 
cilia, and pass through change of forms 
as curious and distinct as in many in- 
sects (Fig. 40), while others appear at 
first in the adult form, and are protect- 
ed in nurseries called marsupiums. 




Fig. 39. — Anchor- 
plate in Synap- 
ta, magnified. 



Value. — Over 1,000 vessels are engaged in the trepang-fisheries 
of the East. The yearly shipment of them from Macassar alone amounts 



SEA-CUCUMBERS. 



to $600,000. Spines of certain Echini are used as slate-pencils in some 
countries. 




Fig. 40. — Development of sea-cucumber. A, jelly-like animal swimming ; 
<z, sea-cucumber forming- within. B, later form, showing tentacles 
and feet. 

Specimens for Study. — Living crinoids are not generally 
obtainable, but the fossil stems are to be found in various 
localities (see " Geology "). The stomachs of cod and 
other fishes often yield brittle stars not found near shore. 
The anchors, dumb-bells, etc., of Holothurians can be seen 
by treating the skin to a solution of potash, and should be 
mounted for the microscope. 

Works on Echinoderms for further reference. 

" Challenger Reports " ; " Depths of the Sea," Sir Wyville Thom- 
son ; "Smithsonian Reports"; Moseley's "Notes of a Naturalist"; 
"Natural History of the Star-Fish," A. Agassiz, in "Memoirs of Mu- 
seum of Compai-ative Zoology " ; " Echinoderms of New England," 
A. E. Verrill, in " Boston Journal of Natural History," vol. x ; " In- 
vertebrata of Vineyard Sound," Verrill ; "Seaside Studies in Natural 
History," Agassiz ; " Homologies of the Pedicellarice," " American 
Naturalist," vol. vii, Agassiz ; " Reports of the United States Com- 
missioner of Fisheries." 



CHAPTER V. 

FIFTH BRANCH OF ANIMALS. 

THE WORMS {Vermes). 

General Characteristics. — Animals that as a rule have a 
head, tail, upper and lower surfaces (dorsal and ventral), 
and generally made up of an indefinite number of joints 
or segments. An idea of the internal structure can be 
obtained from the section of a leech (Fig. 48). The di- 
gestive organ is tubular, extending from the mouth to the 
vent. The heart is a small pulsating organ above it, and a 
system of vessels containing a clear red or green fluid lead 
into the respiratory organs when present ; many worms, 
however, breathe through the body-wall. The nervous 
system consists of a white double chain of ganglia extend- 
ing along the ventral surface. The brain is small, and 
situated in the upper part of the head. In some, the eyes 
are in different parts of the body — the head, tail, etc. ; in 
others, they are absent. In the leech, they are confined to 
the first three segments. In some, as the worms of the 
first class, two branching tubes are found that constitute a 
water vascular system similar to that of the Echinoderms. 
All the worms are developed from eggs, and many pass 
through remarkable changes before assuming the adult 
form. The worms include many animals that, though 
varying greatly in appearance, all possess certain charac- 
teristics in common. - 



FLAT-WORMS, ETC. 



43 




Class I. — Flat-Worms, etc. (Platyhelminthes) 

The Planarian worms are the 
common forms of brooks and 
streams, found clinging to the 
floating twigs and leaves, resem- 
bling slugs. Some are brown, 
with from two to thirty black 
eye-spots. The marine forms at- 
tain a large size. Many are cov- 
ered with delicate cilia and pro- 
tective bristles, either spiral or 
straight rods held in cells and 
shot out like so many arrows as 
a defense. They multiply in sev- 
eral ways, that of self-division be- 
ing the most curious : if divided 
into several pieces, each one be- 
comes a perfect worm. The flat- 
worms are remarkable for their 

changes during growth, some passing through as many as 
seven. Many are parasitic, infesting other animals, as the 
liver-fluke of the sheep (Fig. 41). 

The metamorphosis of an allied form, Mo?wstomum mu- 
tabile, is as follows : When the embryo escapes from the 
egg, it is a ciliated form (Fig. 42, A). It swims about, 
soon entering the body of some animal — in the case of 
Fig. 41, the snail (Limax agrestis). It now produces a sac- 
like larva called the nurse ; later, this is called the Redia, 
then having a tadpole-shape, C, in which are seen germs, 
a. The animal grows until it assumes the appearance of 
D, when the young burst out as tadpole-like creatures 
called Cercarice, E. They now leave their host, swim 
about, are swallowed by some animal, as the sheep, and 
make their way to the liver. Here the tail is lost, and 
they become encysted, in time appearing as a perfect 



Fig. 41. — Liver-fluke of 
sheep twice the natural 
size, a, mouth ; c, diges- 
tive tube ; d, abdominal 
sucker. 



44 



THE WORMS. 



fluke-worm, F, that finally escapes through the intestine, 
and lays eggs in pools or ponds, thus completing the trans- 
formation, that varies in different genera. The tape-worm 
that comes from pork belongs in this class. 




Fig. 42. — A, Monostomum mutabile. A, the ciliated embryo ; a, the nurse ; 
b, nurse free ; C, Redia of Distoma pacificutn, containing germs of 
other Redicz ; D, Redia containing Cerca7-ice (a) ; E, Cercaria ; F, Dis- 
toma, which results from the metamorphosis of the Cercaria. (After 
Steenstrup.) 



Class II. — Round or 
Thread-Worm {Nema- 
tehninthes). 

The pin-worm and Trichina 
are examples. The Trichina 
spiralis (Fig. 43), one twelfth 
of an inch long, is the most 
dangerous, becoming encysted 
in the human muscles. The 
eggs are eaten by rats, that in 
turn are perhaps eaten by pigs, 
so finding their way into the 
human system. The Gordius 




Fig. 43. — Trichina. 



WHEEL-ANIMALCULES. 



45 



aquaticus is the thread-worm, common in many insects 
and in pools. They are the so-called horse-hairs that do 
not turn to snakes. 



Class III.— Wheel-Animalcules (Rotifers). 

The Rotifers (Fig. 44) are microscopic worms, some 
being only T f-g- of an inch in length, having a membranous 
covering. Upon the anterior por- 
tion they have one or two disks, 
surrounded by cilia (Fig. 44, A), 
whose constant motion creates 
the optical illusion of wheels re- 
volving. They abound in the 
ocean, and in standing fresh wa- 
ter, and are so tenacious of life 
that they recover after having 
been dried for years, their sud- 
den appearance after continued 
droughts being attributed to what 
is called spontaneous generation. 
Under the microscope they as- 
sume remarkable shapes : now 
oval, caused by the upper and 
lower segments shutting togeth- 
er ; then leech-like, moving along 
seemingly by suckers, or darting 
off swiftly, propelled by cilia. 
They are oviparous, and Ehren- 
berg found that one species pro- 
duced 16,000,000 young in twelve 
days. 




Fig. 44. — A Rotifer, highly- 
magnified {Hydatina sen- 
fa). A, cilia ; a, anus ; 
d, contractile vesicle ; c, 
water-vessels ; e, ovary ; 
/, ganglion. 



Class IV. — Moss Animals (Polyzoa). 

These animals form a moss or coral-like growth, com- 
posed of cells (Fig. 45), each of which contains a minute, 



4 6 



THE WORMS. 



worm-like polyzoan. They are the commonest objects of 
the sea-shore, and are often pressed under the name of 
sea-mosses. Some occur in fresh water. They multiply 
by budding and by summer and winter eggs, the young 
of the latter being at first free swimmers. 





Fig. 45. — A moss animal (Plumatella repens), 
zooids expanded and retracted. 



Fig. 46. — Brachiopod 
showing arms. 



Class V. — Lamp Shells (Brachiopodd). 

The Brachiopods (Fig. 46) are worms that secrete 
enequivalved shells with or without hinges. The arms are 
on one side of the mouth, and in some appear in spirals 
supported by loops. By the motion of the fringes of the 
arms, food is thrown into the mouth ; they are also re- 
spiratory organs. The Lingula (Fig. 47) is an example 




Fig. 47. — Lingula anatina. 



common in the sand south of Cape Charles, where they 
make sand-tubes about their peduncles or stems. The 
young are at first free swimmers by means of cilia. Allied 



LEECHES, EARTH AND SEA WORMS. 



47 



to them are the Nemertian worms, acorn-tongue, and star- 
worms, that form Classes VI, VII, and VIII. 

Note. — Lingulae, quite similar to those of 
to-day, are found in the Trenton limestone ; 
2,090 species are known, of which 2,000 are 
extinct. 



(Z- 



Class IX. — Leeches, Earth and 
Sea- Worms (Annidatd). 

The leech (Fig. 48) is a common 
form of the higher worms. The body- 
is flat and divided by numerous seg- 
ments ; the head small, with ten small 
and simple eyes ; the mouth bears 
three teeth, arranged so that the 
wounds they inflict ap- 
pear as gashes radiating 
from the center. Some 
swim readily, while oth- 
ers move by the use of 
their suckers, that are 
one or two in number. 
The eggs are laid in sacs 
in the fish-leech, Clepsine, 
and when hatched the 
young cling to the mother; others 
are laid in small oval sacs (Fig. 49), 
and deposited upon the stems and 
leaves of water-plants. 

Note. — Land-leeches are greatly dreaded 
in the forests of India (Fig. 50), and in the 
East India islands they exist in such vast 
numbers that Semper, the naturalist, was 
driven from the woods at Luzon by them, the 
animals falling upon him like dew from the 




Fig. 49. — 
Egg-cap- 
sules of 
leech. 



Fig. 48.— Section of a 
leech. a, anterior 
sucker ; b, posterior 
sucker ; c , anus ; d, 
d, d, stomach ; ce, 
oesophagus ; z, intes- 
tine ; s, s, glands of 
the skin. 



4 8 



THE WORMS. 



shrubs and trees. According to the same authority, during the Sikh 
rebellion an entire English regiment was forced to retreat before the 

myriads of blood- 
suckers. 

Value. — Leeches, 
from their extreme 
sensitiveness to at- 
mospheric changes, 
are sometimes used 
as barometers, but 
their principal value 
is in medicine. In 
one year 7,000,000 
were used in London, 
at $10 per 1,000. 

Earth-Worms. — The earth or angle-worms (Fig. 51) 
are cylindrical, and composed of numerous joints or seg- 
ments, each divided by a thin muscular partition. Upon 
examination, the lower portion of the segments will be 




Fig. 50. 



-Land-leeches of India, racing to attack 
some animal. 




Fig. 51. — Earth-worm (Lumbricus terrestris). 

found perforated with four rows of minute holes, through 
which extend bristles that are really the feet. These curve 
backward, and, by extending the head and throwing them 
out, the remainder of the body is pulled along, a fresh 
hold taken, and so on. They multiply by eggs that are 
protected by capsules, those of some kinds containing 
fifty eggs. 

Value. — Eaten by the Indians, and valuable as preparing the 
earth for the reception of seeds.* 

* The amount of vegetable mold thus brought to the surface in a 
single year by worms amounts, according to Darwin, in some places to 
ten tons in a single acre ; they rarely go below six feet, and it has 



MARINE WORMS. 



49 



Marine Worms. — A common form on the sea-shore 
is Nereis (Fig. 52) ; the body is composed of from one to 
two hundred joints, each of which bears a pair of paddles ; 
upon the head are four eyes, while the mouth is armed 
with a powerful proboscis and two large cimeter-like teeth. 




Fig. 52. — Sea-worm {Nereis). 

They live in holes in the sand, lined with a fluid secretion. 
They multiply by eggs. The Cirratulus also lives in a tube. 
In the South some of these forms arrange a leaf of sea- 
weed in the structure so that it falls over the mouth, form- 
ing a door, and giving the entire tube the appearance of 
sea-weed. The Serpulce (Fig. 53), that build stony houses, 
have radiating coronets, dashed with rich coloring, for 
breathing organs. The Pectinaria bears upon its head 
a pair of combs of burnished gold, while with very few 
exceptions all the worms are luminous — green, blue, 
white, and yellow lights marking their movements under 
the sea. 



been estimated that they average about 100,000 to the acre. In 
New Zealand 348,480 have been found in an acre of rich ground ; so 
it will be seen that the upper crust is continually being eaten and 
ejected by them, their myriads of holes conveying water to the interior 
as well as air. The worms also drag vast masses of leaves under 
ground, that enrich the soil. They cover up seeds, undermine rocks, 
burying them up, and to their work is due the preservation of many 
ruins and ancient works of art. Some of their casts found in India are 
over a foot in length. In England, numbers of ancient Roman villas 
have been discovered beneath the ground, their entombment, accord- 
ing to Darwin, undoubtedly caused by the worms that undermined 
them and deposited their casts upon the floors, until finally, aided by 
other causes, they disappeared from sight. 

3 



5o 



THE WORMS. 




Fig. 53. — Fixed tube-making marine worms (Ser -pules). 



Value.— Food and bait. 

Note. — The most brilliant light-givers are found in the families 
Polynoidce, Syllidce, Chcetopteridce, and Polycirrus. If the first named is 
watched in the aquarium, gleams of greenish light will be seen at the 
attachment of each scale, and the separate organ glistens with pulsa- 
tions of light at the ruptured surface. In the second worm the under 
surfaces of the feet are the only luminous spots. In the third the light 
is confined to the dorsum of the tenth segment or joint, while the Poly- 
cirrus is phosphorescent over its entire surface, emitting a vivid pale 
bluish light. 

Works on Worms for further reference. 

Verrill, " Invertebrata of Vineyard Sound," in "Report of United 
States Commissioner of Fisheries," 1874 ; Verrill, " Parasites of Man 
and Domestic Animals" ; " Planarise of our Ponds and Streams," E. R. 
Lankester, in "Popular Science Review," October, 1867 ; "Alternate 
Generation and Embryology of A ntolytus cornutus," A. Agassiz, " Bos- 
ton Journal of Natural History," vol. vii ; " North American Fresh- 
Water Leeches," A. E. Verrill, in " American Journal of Science," 
1872, vol. iii, page 126; "Animal Parasites and Messmates," Van 
Beneden ; "Formation of Vegetable Mold," Darwin. 



CHAPTER VI. 

SIXTH BRANCH OF ANIMALS. 

MOLLUSCA. 

Getter al Characteristics. — Mollusks are soft, unjointed 
animals enveloped by a muscular cloak or mantle, generally 
protected by a shell. They have a well-defined nervous 
system, a heart, arteries, and veins through which passes 
colorless blood, a foot for locomotion, and eyes more or 
less developed ; 20,000 living species are known, and 19,000 
fossil. Those with two valves, as the oyster, are called 
bivalves, and those with one, as the snail, univalves. The 
former are called Lamellibranchs, from the folded plate- 
like appearance of their gills. 

Class I. — OYSTERS, etc. {Lamellibranchiatd). 

General Characteristics— The Shell. — The shell (Fig. 
54) is formed of carbonate of lime, secreted by the edges 
of the mantle, which is divided into two halves on the 
right and left sides, each one secreting a valve. The part 
of the shell where growth commences is called the beak 
(Fig. 54, a) ; that where the shell opens, the base, k. The 
portion indicated by the direction of the beaks is the ante- 
rior side ; the opposite, the posterior. Near the beaks is 
the hinge b, and here the valves join by teeth, c, d d, that 
fit into cavities on the opposite valve. A horny ligament, 
h, connects the valves, always tending to throw them apart ; 
thus, dead clams are always found open. In the interior 



52 



MOLLUSC A. 



of dead shells several scars are seen, some oval and others 
mere lines ; the former are the marks of the adductor mus- 
cles, e y e, that move the valves, opening and shutting them. 
Near by are smaller scars, showing the position of the 
pedal muscles that moved the foot. The line running par- 
allel with the margin of the shell is called the pallial line, 
/, and shows where the mantle was attached to the shell. 




Fig. 54. — Bivalve shell, a, beak ; k, 
base ; b, b, hinges ; c, d, d, principal 
teeth ; //, ligament ; e, e, adductor 
muscles ; /, lines of growth ; /", pal- 
lial line. 



Fig. 55. — Mollusk, without siphon. 
S, shell ; m, lower half of man- 
tle; m' , a piece of the upper half; 
g, breathing-gills ; //, heart ; Iv, 
liver ; Ip, lips ; o, opening of 
mouth ; a, anus, where refuse is 
thrown out ; ms, muscle hold- 
ing shells together ; c, elastic 
cushion forcing them apart. 



Internal Organs. — Opening the valves, we note the two 
leaves of the mantle, or body-wall, whose function is to 
secrete and repair the shell. Removing these, we see the 
gills (Fig. 55, g) or branchiae that are open in front and 
joined at the back. They appear made up of minute 
rods covered by a maze of veins, and are provided with 
cilia. The siphon (Fig. 56, s), or so-called blackhead, 
when present, projects through the mantle, and in the 
clam is capable of great distention. It is divided into 



OYSTERS, ETC. 



53 



two parts, either double or single, and the orifices are 
surrounded by tentacles. 

Circulation. — The blood is purified (aerated) and food 
obtained by the same action. Water is drawn into the 
siphon opening farthest from the valve (Fig. 56, in), and, 
wafted along by the cilia, is thus brought in contact with 
the gills. The food-particles in the water are carried along 
to the toothless mouth (Fig. 55, o) y that, guarded by two 
pairs of sense organs (palpi), is placed at the end of the 
shell opposite the siphon. They then pass into the stom- 
ach and intestine that winds about and passing through 




Fig. 56. — Bivalve with siphon, showing the foot. /, ligament ; F, foot ; m, 
mantle ; s, siphon ; ex., excurrent orifice ; in., incurrent orifice. Except 
the siphon and the large foot, the arrangement of organs is similar to 
that of the oyster. 



the heart finally connects with the siphon nearest the valve 
(Fig. 56, ex.), out of which all rejectementa passes. Extend- 
ing through the body is a glass-like rod, that is possibly a 
brace or support. The heart lies near the hinge (Fig. 55, 
k), and is composed of one ventricle and one auricle in 
the oyster. In other species the heart is three-chambered, 
or there may be two hearts of two chambers each. Arte- 
ries lead from the ventricle over the body, and veins carry 
blood to the gills g, where it is purified by the air in the 
water — then passing back to the auricle. The nervous 
system consists of three pairs of ganglia — cerebral, pedal, 
and a pair that send nerves to the internal organs, gills, 



54 



MOLL USC A. 



etc. The eyes, when present, are in the borders of the 
mantle, and often resemble gems. The foot is a muscular 
organ that projects from the mantle nearly opposite the 
siphon, by which the animal leaps, moves, or glues itself to 
the rock, as the case may be. The ear is in the foot — a 
transparent sac containing a clear fluid in which floats a 
glassy globule. 



BIVALVES WITHOUT SIPHONS. 

Oysters {Ostreidce). — The oyster is found in great beds 
upon the coasts of many countries. About 425 different 
living species are known, and over 1,400 fossil, some of 
the latter being of gigantic size. A single oyster will de- 
posit during July and September over 1,000,000 yellow 
eggs. At first they remain in the gills, but finally leave 
the parent, and, after swimming about for a while by means 
of cilia, during which their numbers are greatly dimin- 
ished, they finally settle upon the bottom, and in five or 
six weeks are as large as a grain of corn, three years, how- 
ever, being required to attain full growth. They generally 
lie upon their sides, and are often inhabited by one or 
more small crabs (Pimwtheres). 

Value. — Seven hundred and sixty-five million oysters are handled 
yearly in New York alone, representing a capital of $1,577,000, the 
industry giving employment to thousands. 

Comb Shells (Pectens). — The Pectens are generally 

round, with radiating 
ribs from the valves, and 
are noted for their loco- 
motive powers, and the 
luster and brilliancy of 
their gem-like eyes that 
dot the mantle. They 

Fig. 57 .-Pecten swimming, by violently have also numbers of 
opening and closing its valves. filaments that extend 




WING SHELLS. 



55 



from the shell — in the Lima Mans to more than its entire 
length — and, by a vigorous opening and shutting of its 
valves, this shell flies through the water, its long, golden- 
red tentacles streaming behind. It also constructs a nest 
by covering itself with stones, shells, etc., connected by 
its byssus. The common Pecten is called the dancing- 
scallop (Fig. 57), from its curious movements, darting 
through the water and above it with the greatest ease. 

Value. — Indian ornaments and articles of food. 

Wing Shells (Aviculidce). — The Meleagrina or pearl- 
oysters have obtained great prominence from their pearl- 
bearing properties. They come from Madagascar, Ceylon, 
Panama, etc. The pearls are formed of a pearly matter 
called nacre, secreted by the animal. If a grain of sand 
falls into the shell, the oyster envelops it with a pearly 
coating to smooth off the edges, and layer by layer the 
pearl grows. Imperfect pearls grow upon the sides of the 
valves, and are generally the attempts of the oyster to re- 
pel the advance of some boring parasite. 

Note — One fishery in Ceylon recently produced $80,000 worth of 
pearls, to obtain which 17,000,000 oysters were brought ashore. The 
fisheries are under the government control. Mother-of-pearl is the 
pearly shell of certain oysters, and valued in decoration. In one year 
twenty tons of silver-tipped shells have been received at Liverpool 
from the Society Islands, thirty tons of black-tipped from Manila, and 
340 tons of a smaller kind from Panama. 

Pinna. — These shells, common on many shores, are 
wedge-shaped and horny, the hinge delicate, the beaks 
forming a sharp peak. The foot is long and grooved. 
Over thirty species are known, and are found buried in the 
sand off shore. They attain a length of two feet. 

Value. — The Pinna has long been noted for its silk, which is the 
cable or byssus by which the shell attaches itself to the bottom. 
Gloves and stockings of Pinna-silk can be seen in the British Museum. 
Gloves so made cost $1.50 a pair, and stockings $2.75. 



56 



MOLLl/SC A. 



Mussels {Mytilidcz). — The black mussels with their 
silvery interiors are the common forms on the rocks of the 
Eastern Shore. They are covered with a thick leathery 
skin, the hinge being without teeth. They are remarkable 
for their climbing powers (Fig. 58, M). By means of their 
foot, /, they fasten a silken cord to the rocks, then another, 
and by continually stretching out cables ahead or upward. 




Fig. 58. — Group of headless mollusks. c, cardium springing ; M, mytilus ; 
s, pecten ; J?, razor-fish, solen ; _/, foot ; /, anchoring-threads ; st\ 
breathing-siphons ; e, eyes of scallop. 



and lifting and breaking off those below, they climb or 
warp themselves along very much as does a ship on a lee- 
shore ',217 living and 350 fossil species are known. 

Value. — The edible-mussel fisheries afford employment to many 
persons in Europe. 

Fresh- Water Mussels ( Umonida). — These are 
pond, river, and lake mussels, resembling in appearance 
the edible mussel, black without and pearly within, tinted 
with iridescent hues. About 550 living species are known 
throughout the world, and 60 fossil. The sexes are dis- 
tinct. The young are held in the gills of the mother in 



BIVALVES WITH SIPHONS. 



5? 



the winter and early spring. They live for ten or fifteen 
years. 

Value. — Unios produce pearls, and in St. Clair County, Illinois, 
and Rutherford County, Tennessee, their collection is a profitable 
business. In Scotland, $50,000 worth of fresh-water pearls have been 
taken from unios during the summer. A pearl was taken from a 
unio near Salem, New Jersey, a few years ago, that sold in Paris for 
$2,000. 

BIVALVES WITH SIPHONS. 

Tridacna (Tridacnidce). — In the Tridacna gigas (Fig* 
59), the largest living bivalve, the shells are often five feet 



SCALE IN FEET. 




Fig. 59. — Giant clam {Tridacna gigas). 

long ; each valve weighing over 250 pounds, the animal 
itself frequently 30 pounds, one serving as a meal for fifty 

men. The shell is trigonal, 
with deep radiations. They 
are common in the Torres 
Straits, where they are sunk 
into the coral rock, present- 
ing the appearance of huge 
elongatedsea-anemones, the 
mantle being of brilliant blue and green. So securely are 
they imbedded that they have to be quarried out at low 




c 

Fig. 60. — Bivalve, with siphons, a, 
excurrent ; &, incurrent ; c, foot. 



58 



MOLLUSC A. 



tide with axe and chisel. According to Moseley, they 
attain an age of one hundred years. 

Note. — So powerful are they that large sharks and rays that have 
accidentally crossed them have been seized and held. The Tridacna 
always harbors within its shell several crabs. The byssus is so large 
that it can only be cut with a hatchet. Eight species are known. 

Value. — The Tridacnse are often used as benetiers for holding holy 
water. The natives cut the shell up into knives. 

Razor-Shells (So/emda)— This shell (Fig. 58, J?) is 
long, thin, and slightly curved, with two or three teeth in 
each valve. They have a powerful club-shaped foot, do 
not secrete a byssus, but lie concealed upright in the sand. 
When placed upon the sand, they use the foot like an au- 
ger, and rapidly disappear ; 60 or more living species are 
known, and 350 fossil. 




Fig. 61. — Pholas imbedded in a block of granite, showing section. 



Boring Shells (Pholadid<z). — These have a thin, brit- 
tle, and very hard shell, open at both ends, and armed with 
file-like markings. The siphons are very long, and united 



BIVALVES WITH SIPHONS. 59 

except at the tips. They are found in nearly all oceans, 
about 80 living species and 50 fossil being known. They 
are noted for their boring powers (Fig. 61), making their 
way into the hardest rock. 

Note. — The shells contain aragonite in their composition, and are 
supposed by continual friction to wear away the hardest rock. Having 
entered a block of gneiss, they grow and enlarge their hole, and so im- 
prison themselves. The pillars of the temple of Serapis, in Italy, are 
pierced by them, showing that the land was submerged long enough 
for them to obtain a foot-hold. The Pholas emits a bluish-white light 
when dead or alive, and they may be compared to miners with their 
lamps. A single one placed in seven ounces of milk has been used as 
a lamp ; faces near it were illumined, and the milk appeared trans- 
parent. Another, placed in honey, retained its light over a year. 

Ship-Worm ( Teredo).— The shell is composed of two 
curved equal valves, open at both ends (Fig. 62). The 
animal is worm-like, and not entirely covered by the shell. 




Fig. 62. — Ship- Worm {Teredo navalis). 

They bore into wood, incasing the tunnel with a limy 
ceiling. The siphons are long, and where they separate 
are protected with small calcareous bodies, called palettes, 
which close the mouth of the tube. The foot forms a 
sucker. The common teredo is at first free swimming, 
passing through several changes before it assumes the 
adult form. The Teredo gigantea, found at Sumatra buried 
in the mud, is from four to six feet in length, the tube 
three to four inches in diameter, and when covered with 
other shells is extremely bulky and heavy. 

Note. — The destruction t they cause seems incredible. A large 
portion of a wreck stranded on the Florida reef, and examined by the 



6o 



MOLLUSC A. 



author twenty years ago, has now disappeared, having crumbled away 
under their tunneling. Hulls that appear solid may be crushed by the 
hand — completely honey-combed. In 1731 they nearly destroyed the 
piles in Holland, threatening the country with destruction. They 
attack floating wood, and so are carried all over the world. Docks at 
Tortugas, Fla., were rendered unsafe in twelve months. Palmetto is 
the most successful resistant. 

Watering-pot Shells {Aspergillum). — In these shells 
the two valves are imbedded in the lower part of the tube, 

the beaks only being visible 
externally. The tube which 
incloses the siphon ends in 
shelly expansions or ruffles ; 
at the other or anterior end 
it is club-shaped, and cov- 
ered by a disk like the nose 
or sprinkler of a watering- 
pot, and perforated with 
numerous holes in exactly 
the same way. They are 
found in tropical countries, 
buried in the mud or sand, 
the ruffled end containing 
the siphon exposed. 

SINGLE-SHELLED MOL- 
LUSKS. 

Class II. — Snails, etc. 
{Gasteropoda, belly- 
footed). 

General Characteristics. 
— Mollusks that secrete a 
single shell. They have 
ears and eyes upon a dis- 
tinct head. The foot is 
now a flat, creeping disk 




Fig. 63. — The interior of a univalve 
{Periwinkle), f, foot ; m, muscle 
for drawing back into the shell ; 
g, spittle glands ; the glands for 
giving out slime are near the anus 
tube ; t/i, throat leading to s, 
stomach ; r, tooth-bearer rolled 
up ; br, branchiae or breathing- 
gills, which, when the mantle is 
folded back in its place, lie over 
the throat ; a, anus ; o, ovary car- 
rying eggs. 



SINGLE-SHELLED MOLLUSKS. 



61 



(Fig. 63, /). They also have an odontophore or tooth- 
bearer, and the shell is often closed by a plate or door 
called the operculum ; 22,000 species are known, 7,000 
of which are extinct or fossil. 

Sea Wood-Lice (Chitonidoe). — In these (Fig. 64) the 
shell is composed of eight transverse plates. The young 




Fig. 64. — A gasteropod {Chiton). I. Adult, showing plates. II. Chiton 
dissected : c, mouth ; g, nervous ring ; ao, great artery from the heart, 
aorta ; c, ventricle ; c\ an auricle ; br, left branchiae ; od, oviducts. Ill, 
IV, V. Development of free-swimming young. 



(Fig. 64, III) at first have no shells, swimming about by 
the aid of minute cilia ; 250 living species are known, 
and 125 fossil. In the West Indies they are eaten by the 
natives. 

Ear-Shells {Haliotida) . — The Haliotis is a pearly ear- 
shaped shell, with the outer lip perforated with holes ; 



62 



MGLLUSCA. 



they have no operculum. They are found in many seas, 
196 living and 150 fossil species being known. 

Value. — In California they are eaten. In 18S0, 6,372 sacks of Al- 
balones, or Haliotis, valued at $46,179, were shipped from that State, 
and probably as many more by rail. They find a market in New York 
and Boston, where they are either cut or powdered and made into but- 
tons, etc. 

Violet Snails (lanthinidce).— These shells (Fig. 65, I) 
float upon the surface of Southern waters, and are tinted 
with purple and violet, the animal when pressed emitting 




Fig. 65.— I, Ianthina, the ocean-snail : /, foot ; r, raft of air-bubbles, with 
egg-bags hanging down. C, Carinaria : /, foot ; s, shell covering the 
breathing-gills, g. Both these forms float upside down. P, Pteropod. 



a rich purple indelible ink. They secrete by their foot 
a curious raft, composed seemingly of bubbles of air in 
transparent sacs. This buoys them up, and is also a nur- 
sery, the eggs being attached to the under portion, the 
entire family being at the mercy of the wind. 



SINGLE-SHELLED MOLLUSKS. 



63 



Cowries, or Egg-Shells (Cypraadci). — The Cowries 
(Fig. 66, C), called in Florida micramocs, have richly enam- 
eled and marked shells ; the spire is not seen, and the 
opening is small. When living they throw out a coating 
that completely covers the shell, protecting it from damage. 




Fig. 66. — Flesh-feeding mollusks. W, whelk ; E, whelk-eggs ; C, cowry ; 
0, operculum ; «, notch in shell ; st, siphon ; _/", foot ; s, head. 

Value. — The Cyprcea moneta is used as money in some parts of 
Africa. In 1848 60 tons of this money was sent out. 




Fig. 67. — Toothed tongue of Buccinum undatum. B, one of the transverse 
rows enlarged ; /, lateral teeth. 



Whelks (Buccinidci). — Nearly 1,100 living species 
have been found ; many are common on our shores. The 
shell has few whorls, and the operculum is long or ovate 
(Fig. 66, W, o). In some the tongue is long and contains 



64 MOLLUSC A. 

ioo rows of teeth (Fig. 67). Some bore into shells, and 
all are scavengers. 

Value. — Many of the whelks afford a rich crimson dye, which in 
16S4 was used in Ireland for dyeing linen. 

Note. — Some of the Southern species, as Magihis, burrow into 
coral, throwing out a tunnel as fast as the coral surrounds them, and 
filling it up with shelly matter. 

Diverse-footed Mollusks {Heteropoda). — These Gas- 
teropods are all marine, and float upon the sea in trans- 
parent shells of delicate and glass-like construction. In 
some the foot forms in part a curious fin-like organ. The 
eggs are deposited in long threads, the young passing 
through many changes. The Carinaria (Fig. 65, C) and 
Atalanta are the best known. 

Gasteropods with Exposed Gills (Opisthobranchi- 
aid). — We now come to the shelled or shell-less mollusks 
that have gills more or less upon the outside. • 

Sea-Pigeons {Aplysiadce). — These are also called sea- 
slugs and hares. One, common on the Florida reef, is 
as large as the closed fist, and somewhat resembles a 
plucked pigeon. They are green or olive in color, and 
when touched throw out as a defense a cloud of rich pur- 
ple ink that completely surrounds them. They are found 
crawling among the sea-weed, not in the coral. The skin 
appears to cover the body in two folds lapping over the 
back, and when the animal is lifted from the bottom is 
vigorously flapped. 

Sea-Slugs (£o/is, Don's, etc.). — These curiously formed 
mollusks are found on sea-weed and in other localities. In 
many the gills resemble plumes and leaves, so that the ani- 
mals are almost perfect mimics of the weed, even in color. 
Such is the luminous Scyllaza pelagica. The gills of the 
Doris (Fig. 68, d) resemble a plant ; the Eolis (Fig. 68, e) 
seems covered with grass ; while the Glaucus resembles a 
lizard with three branching feet on each side. They are 



AIR-BREA THING GASTEROPODS. 



65 



shell-less except when very young. Eolis and Tritonia have 
been heard to make audible sounds. The eggs of Doris 




Fig. 68. — Naked-gilled mollusca, commonly called sea-slugs. D, Doris 
pilosa ; E, Eolis coro7iata ; f, foot ; g, breathing-gills ; t, tentacles. 

are incased in a ribbon and rolled up like a watch-spring ; 
360,000 young are often produced, that are at first free 
swimmers. 



Air-breathing Gasteropods (Pulmonatd). 

General Characteristics. — Mollusks possessing a single 
lung, a chamber on the right side of the body near the 
head, lined with a membrane containing blood-vessels. 
The cavity is closed 
by a valve. The shell, 
when present, is gen- 
erally thin and deli- 
cate, and often highly 
colored. 

Pond-Snails „ r ,-,-,,. 

, • 7 \ rp. Fig. 69. — a, egg capsule of a fresh-water 

{LimncBtdcE) . — These snail . ^ ^ eggs> Mghly magnified> show- 

are the common pond- ing the young snail. 




66 MOLLUSC A. 

snails, interesting from the great variations of the shell. 
The eggs are laid in capsules (Fig. 69), in a jelly-like 
mass, late in the spring. In the winter they hibernate in 
the mud ; 320 species are known. 

Land-Snails (Heliadce). — Three thousand three hun- 
dred and thirty-two species of these are known in various 




FlG. 70. — Air-breathing gasteropods : Snails and slugs. A, garden snail 
{Helix) ; B, B, slug Testacella — one disappeai-ing into the ground, and 
only the tail showing ; C, the great gray slug (Limax) ; s, shell ; t, ten- 
tacles ; e, eyes ; b, breathing-hole. 

parts of the world. They are easily kept in a fernery and 
their habits watched. Many of the snails (Fig. 70, A) de- 
posit large white or yellow eggs with a calcareous covering. 
The Bulimus (Fig. 71), an ally, rolls two leaves together 
and fastens the eggs between. Some of their eggs are as 
large as a pigeon's. 



AIR-BREATHING GASTEROPODS. 6j 




A Group of Univalves. 
i. Land mollusk of Philippines (Rhysota Antonii ). 2. Eulima, that 
lives in Holotburians. 3. Chloroea. 4. Lymnea, 5. Chlorcza. 6. Cochlo- 
styla stabilis. 7. Planorbis. 8. Succinea. 9. Amphidromous (Malay). 
10. Xesta. 11. Physa. 12. Cochlostyla (Philippines). 



68 



MOLLUSC A. 



Value. — Cultivated for food — an important industry in France. 

Note. — Most of the snails hibernate in the cold seasons, and will 
live for years without food. The largest are the agate shells of 
Africa, eight inches across ; the eggs an inch in length, with a 
hard covering. The Helicarion gzitta of the Philippine Islands, ac- 
cording to Semper, when caught by the tail, throws it off and so 
escapes, the tail in time growing again. This is also the case with 
a West Indian snail (Stenopus). Helix hortensis, common in New 
England, was introduced years ago from England. Helix fi 'delis is 
an albino, found in Washington Territory. 




Fig. 71. — Bulimus rosaceus. 



Land-Slugs (Limcidd). — These slugs (Fig. 70, C), of 
which 116 different species are known, are common in every 
garden, and their bright- 
yellow eggs found under 
old boards or buried in the 
ground. They have, as a rule, 
a rudimentary scale-like shell 
(Fig. 70, S), long tentacles, 
and are carnivorous, eating 
worms and other animals. 
They have a curious secre- 
tion by which they lower 
themselves from twigs and 
leaves. It is also a defense, 
and when applied to many 
animals, as moles, is often 
fatal. Limax noctiluca, from 
Teneriffe, has a luminous 




Fig. 72. — 0?ichidium tonganum, a 
mollusk with dorsal eyes ; natural 
size. 



SCAPHOPODA. 



69 




Fig. 73. — Section of dorsal or 
back eye of Onchidium ver- 
ruculatum. f, fibrous layer 
of retina ; s, layer of rods and 
cones inclosed in retina. 



pore on the mantle, while the 
eggs of Arion are luminous for 
the first fifteen days. 

Marine Pulmonata. — 
The Peronia frequents the sea- 
coast. The most remarkable 
form is the Onchidium (Fig. 
72), that, according to Sem- 
per, has numerous eyes upon 
its back (Fig. 73) in addition 
to the usual pair upon the 
head. They form the princi- 
pal food of a fish, the Periop- 
tkalmusy that leaves the water 
and hops along the shore to 
obtain them. 

Value. — All slugs are scaven- 
gers. Several kinds are dried and 
eaten by the Indians. 



Class II. — SCAPHOPODA. 

Tooth-Shells (Dentaliadce). — These headless mol- 
lusks have a tooth- or tusk-shaped shell (Fig. 74), open 




Fig. 74. — 1, Dentalium entalis, natural size ; 2, shell magnified, and broken 
to show animal within ; 3, animal projecting from the shell ; 4, animal 
from below, magnified ; 6, same from above ; 5, same, showing internal 
structure. 



;o 



MOLLUSC A. 



at both ends, with a foot greatly elongated and adapted 
for boring in the sand, in which they live in from 60 to 
600 feet of water on the sea-coast. The sexes are dis- 
tinct. The young pass through several changes before 
assuming the adult form. The shells form the wampum 
of the Indians. 

Class III. — SQUIDS, etc. {Cephalopoda, head-footed). 

General Characteristics. — The Cephalopods are the 
highest forms of mollusks. They are marine, and either 
swim or crawl ; have long arms or tentacles arranged 
about the mouth, armed with suckers or hooks, two par- 
rot-like beaks, and a toothed tongue. They generally 
possess ink-bags; have highly developed eyes, and a large 
brain protected by a cartilaginous covering, calling to 
mind the cranium of vertebrates. 

Wing-footed Cephalopods (Fteropoda). — These, 
the lowest and perhaps degenerate Cephalopods, are free- 
swimmers, moving by two broad fins or wings upon each 
side of the neck (Fig. 65, P). In Northern waters they are 
found in vast swarms. The Cleodora emits a soft, clear, 
phosphorescent light that gleams through the delicate shell. 
The Clio, in swimming, almost touches its fins above and 
below. It has a wonderful arrangement for seizing prey. 
Each tentacle bears about 3,000 transparent cylinders, 
each containing twenty stalked suckers ; and, as there are 
six tentacles, the Clio can grasp its prey with 360,000 hands. 
They have also a pair of many-toothed jaws, and a tongue 
armed with recurved teeth — a terrible array for so small a 
creature. They are eaten by whales. The young pass 
through several changes. 

Order I. Four-gilled Cephalopods {Tetrabranchi- 
ata) ; Nautilus {Nautilidce). — Of 1,500 species that have 
lived in past ages, only two are extant. The shell (Fig. 75) 
is pearly, and divided into cells or rooms that are formed 



SQUIDS, ETC. 



71 



as the animal grows, the last one occupied always being 
walled up or divided off by a partition called a septa. The 
center of all the divisions is penetrated by a tube ; so, 

though living in the 
last chamber, the ani- 
mal is still connected 
with the first by a long, 
delicate, fleshy pedicle 
that extends through it. 
The different air-cham- 
bers are filled with gas, 
and by them the spe- 
cific gravity of the ani- 
mal may be increased 
or diminished. Beneath 
the mouth is a siphon 
through which water is 
ejected, thus forcing 
them along. On the 
bottom they crawl with 
the shell upward. They 
have no ink-bag, and 
in the female the tentacles or arms number ninety-four. 
The great fossil Ammonites, three feet across, are extinct 
relatives of the nautilus. 

Value. — Shell in ornamental work. 

Note. — The eye of the nautilus is remarkable in having no diop- 
tric apparatus, being merely an elevation bearing a minute hole that 
leads into the globe of the eye, which during life is filled with sea- 
water, and thus, according to Hensen, in place of a refracting lense 
and cornea, there is an arrangement for forming an image on the prin- 
ciple of the pin-hole camera. 

Order II. Two-gilled Cephalopods {Dibranchiatd) ; 
Spirilla {Spirididce). — These small Cephalopods resemble 
squids, but contain within their bodies a delicate cham- 
bered pearly shell with separate whorls, the various rooms 




Fig. 75. — Section of Nfiutilus pompiliits, 
showing the chambers and connecting 
tube containing the fleshy pedicle. 



72 



MOLLUSC A. 



or cells all connected by a tube or siphuncle, as in the nau- 
tilus. The animal is rarely seen alive, though, after a 
storm, the keys of the outer Florida reef are often lined 
with their empty shells. 

Ten-armed Cephalopods. — Small squids (Fig. 76) 
are common in nearly all waters, but within a few years 
specimens have been discov- 
ered of gigantic size in the fiords 
of Newfoundland and other parts 
of the world. The largest found 
was fifty-five feet long, the body 
from the tip of the tail to the 
beak twenty feet, and the long 
tentacles thirty-five feet. The 
body is bag-shaped, terminating 
in an arrow-shaped tail ; the 
head is distinct from the body, 
with large, staring eyes ; about 
the mouth are eight short and 
two long arms, the former with 
suckers on their entire length, 
the latter having them princi- 
pally at the ends. Beneath the 
mouth is the siphon through 
which they eject water and ink 
— the latter when alarmed. The 
long arms are used to secure 
prey, drawing it within the reach 
of the smaller ones and the 
beaks, that resemble those of 

a parrot, with the exception that the upper fits into the 
lower. The body is supported internally by a long and 
extremely delicate pen. They are carnivorous, living on 
fish. The Loligo pallida is common on our coast. The 
Cranchia has been seen to emit a faint phosphorescent 
light. The large squids are extremely powerful, often 




Fig. 76. — A, squid {Sepia offi- 
cinalis) ; 2?, horny ring of 
sucker, showing saw-like 



SQUIDS, ETC. 



73 




Fig. 77. — Pen 
of Sepia offi- 
cinalis. 



weighing 2,000 pounds or more, and have 
been known to attack boats. Each egg of 
the Sepia is inclosed in a thick envelope 
resembling India-rubber ; those of the Lo- 
ligo in rows in a tough jelly, and glued to 
the bottom in strings. 

Value. — As codfish-bait. The sepia of the artist 
comes from their ink-bags, and the cuttle-fish bone 
of commerce is the pen of a certain species. The 
pen of Sepia officinalis (Fig. 77) is made into pounce, 
dentifrice, and polishing-powder. 

Eight-footed Cephalopods (Octopo- 
da*). — These, as well as the squids, are 
commonly called devil-fishes. They live 




Fig. 78. — Octopus punctatus^ showing the relative size,and the position when 
crawling on the bottom. From the Emerton model at Yale College. 

* A small one, speared by the author, lifted over twenty pounds of 
coral when hauled in, throwing out ink that permeated the water in 
all directions. In 1877 an Indian woman is said to have been drowned 
by one at Vancouver Island. At Sitka the Octopus punctatus (Fig. 78} 
is caught having, according to Dall, a total radial spread of nearly 
twenty-eight feet. 
4 



74 MOLLUSC A. 

upon the bottom among the rocks. The body (Fig. 78) 
is a simple sac, from which radiate eight sucker-lined 
arms. They are very powerful, and when enraged waves 
of color pass over the skin in rapid succession. When 
attacked they eject a cloud of ink, and under its cover 
crawl away, passing through incredibly small holes, and 
so mimicking the colors of the bottom that an experi- 
enced eye is necessary to detect them. They feed upon 
crabs and other animals, and are mainly bottom animals, 
though some species have web-like membranes between 
their eight arms enabling them to swim. Each egg of the 
octopus is inclosed in a thin, transparent, oval case, and 
attached by a stalk with several hundred others to the 
bottom ; sixty species are known. 

Value. — The fisheries are important to the Chinese. 

Argonaut (ArgonautidcB). — The Cephalopods of this 
family are often incorrectly figured with sails raised in the 
air. The shell is symmetrical and of great delicacy and 
beauty. The animal rests in it, the two upper or dorsal 
pairs of arms being developed at their tips into membranes 
that are thrown back over the shell (Fig. 79), holding the 




Fig. 79. — Argonaut swimming, showing the broad tentacles holding the ani- 
mal in, instead of being used as sails, as sometimes incorrectly pictured. 

Argonaut in. The broad tentacles also contain the shell- 
secreting glands. The shell is likewise the nursery, the 
eggs being attached within it and carried about. The 
male secretes no shell, and is extremely small. They are 
deep-water animals, and crawl about upon the bottom 



SQUIDS, ETC. 



75 



(Fig. 80), but are occasionally cast ashore on the New 
Jersey and New England coasts ; four species are known. 



I ~ --" ^ /x 




Fig. 80. — A, showing position of Argonaut when crawling on the bottom. 
B, Argonaut without the shell. 

Works on Mollusc a for further reference. 
" Challenger Reports " ; " Smithsonian Reports " ; " Semper's Ani- 
mal Life " ; Binney and Gould's " Shells of Massachusetts " ; M Inverte- 
brates of Vineyard Sound," Verrill ; " Terrestrial Air-breathing Mol- 
lusks of the United States," W. G. Binney ; "Bulletin of Museum of 
Comparative Zoology," vol. iv., 1878 ; "Fresh-water Mollusks," E. S. 
Morse, "Popular Science Monthly," vol. vii, p. 563 ; " Natural His- 
tory of the Oyster," " Popular Science Monthly," vol. vi ; " The Teredo 
and its Depredations," " Popular Science Monthly," vol. xiii ; "De- 
velopment of the Pond-Snail," E. R. Lankester, " Quarterly Journal 
of Microscopical Science," 1874; Woodward's "Manual"; "Colossal 
Cephalopods of the North Atlantic," A. E. Verrill, " Report of United 
States Fish Commission, 1882 ;" " Discovery of an Octopus inhabiting 
the Coast of New England," "American Naturalist," vol. vii ; " Em- 
bryology of Fossil Cephalopods," A. Hyat, " Bulletin of Museum of 
Comparative Zoology," vol. iii, No. 5 ; " Mollusca," ninth edition, 
" Encyclopaedia Britannica," E. Ray Lankester. 



CHAPTER VII. 

EIGHTH BRANCH OF ANIMALS. 

CRABS AND INSECTS {Arthro^oda). 

General Characteristics. — Animals having jointed feel- 
ers, jaws, and legs, arranged in pairs ; skin hard, and body- 
made up of rings or segments. The Arthropods are di- 
vided into two classes : first, crustaceans, crabs, etc. ; sec- 
ond, insects. 

Class I. — Crabs, etc. {Crustaceans). 

Getieral Characteristics. — Arthropods that breathe by- 
means of gills attached to the feet, or in some cases respir- 
ing through the body-walls, as in the Entomostraca. The 
body is covered with a hard skin, composed principally of 
carbonate and phosphate of lime. This forms an external 
skeleton, protecting the soft body parts within. 

Skeleton. — Taking the fresh-water craw-fish as an ex- 
ample (Fig. 81), the body is seen to be divided into two 
general regions : the cephalo-thorax (head and thorax) 
and the abdomen, and as a rule made up of twenty dis- 
tinct rings or segments often difficult to define. Upon 
these the organs of locomotion are arranged in pairs, be- 
ing modified for various purposes, as cutting and crushing 
claws, paddles, stalked eyes, antennae, swimmerets, etc. 
To the first segment of the head the movable and stalked 
eyes are attached (Fig. 65, e). The next segment bears 
the small and large antennce or feelers ; then follow six 



CRABS, ETC. 



77 



pairs of jointed organs, fitting closely together, their office 
being to take the food from the claws and prepare it for the 
stomach. The first pair are the jaws proper, or mandibles, 



Cephalo-thorax. 



Abdomen. 




Large antenna 

Mandible 

Maxilla; 

Maxillipedesiti 
(3 



Fig. 8i. — Cray-fish seen from the side, with that portion of the carapace re- 
moved which covers the branchiae, or gills. The appendages of the left 
side only shown, s, region of stomach ; A, abdominal appendages ; B, 
bases of the four small legs ; C, base of large claw ; /, " gill-bailer," or 
flabellum, attached to the second maxilliped ; e, eye. (After Morse.) 



that cut and grind the food ; the next two pairs, i and 2, 
are assistant jaws, or maxilla. Below these are three pairs 
of appendages called foot- jaws, or maxillipedes. These be- 
long to the thorax, while the majidibles and pairs of max- 
illa belong to the head proper. The segments of the ab- 
domen fit loosely together, so that the " tail " can be bent 
beneath the body, and by flapping it vigorously the craw- 
fish swims, the five flattened appendages (Fig. 82) at the 
end serving as fins. From the under portion of the cephalo- 
thorax extend five pairs of legs : the first pair are the large 
claws prominent in the lobster, where one is a crusher 



7» 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 



and the other a cutter ; the other four pairs (Fig. 81, B) 
are long and slender, the first two ending in nippers, the 
hinder ones being provided with points or claws ; these 
are the true organs of locomotion on the bottom. Each 
segment of the abdomen except the last bears a pair of flat 
appendages or swimmerets (Fig. 81, a), by which the craw- 
fish can swim ahead, and to these the eggs are attached. 

Digestion. — The digestive organs, seen in Fig. 83, con- 
sist of the mouth, surrounded by the mandibles, that leads 





Fig. 82.— Tail of a cray-fish, 
showing flattened append- 
ages for swimming. 



Fig. 83. — Ideal section of prawn, 
showing : s, stomach, below this 
the mouth ; /, liver ; », intestine ; 
//, heart ; g, chain of ganglia or 
nerve-masses ; hg, head-ganglia. 



by the oesophagus into the large stomach s j the latter is 
provided with crushing teeth, by which food is still further 
masticated, then passing through a strainer at the posterior 
end, and so into the intestine 2, that leads into the telson. 
The liver / is very large and of a dark-green hue. 

Respiration. — The higher crustaceans breathe by gills, 
the plume-like object in Fig. 81. They are attached to 
the base of the legs, and are protected by the carapace or 
shelly covering of the cephalo-thorax. Water containing 
air reaches the gills by flowing under the edge of the car- 
apace back of the great claws. In the oyster (Fig. 55), we 
saw that cilia kept up a current over the gills, but here 
there is a curious appendage attached to the base of the 
second pair of maxillipeds (Fig. 81,/), called the "gill- 



CRABS, ETC. 



79 



bailer," that moves back and forth, creating a current over 
the gills that finds its way out through an opening near the 
mouth. The colorless blood is pumped by the heart (Fig. 
83, h) to the gills, where it takes up oxygen, returning to 
the heart by numerous venous channels. 

Nervous System. — The brain or head ganglia is seen 
in Fig. 83, hg. Nerves pass to each eye, and others to 
the four antennae, while a chain of nerve-masses extend 
through the body (Fig. 83, g), having branches to the 
principal parts. 

Organs of Touch, Hearing, etc. — The ears are at the 
base of the smaller or first antennas (Fig. 81), and are 
little sacs in the upper side, containing a thick fluid, in 
which float grains of sand. On a ridge projecting into the 
interior of the sac are .numerous hairs, not over -^5- of an 
inch in length, that are connected by nerves with the brain. 
The sound-wave sets the sand-grains in motion, the vibra- 
tion in turn affects the hairs, and the sound is carried to 
the brain. 

II. 



\i ■..:_ 






0000 000pp*9 



2Z 



&d 








Fig. 84. — Stages of casting in the carapace of the freshwater cray-fish, from 
Braun. I. First stage : a, the two old cuticular layers ; b, the layer of 
casting hairs ; c, the epidermis cells. II. Second stage : a, 5, c } as in I ; 
between b and c the new cuticle d has intervened. 



The organs of touch are the delicate hairs about the 
mouth-parts and legs. The organs of smell are supposed 
to be on the under side of the outer branch of the small 
antennae. Crustaceans moult or cast their shell at differ- 
ent periods. The old shell is pushed up by what are called 



8o 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 



" casting hairs " (Fig. 84). The soft-shelled crab is a re- 
sult of the casting. They also have the faculty of throw- 
ing off their limbs and renewing them again. 

Development. — The young of most crustaceans pass 
through many changes before assuming the parent form.* 
The eggs resemble at first minute currants (Fig. 86), that 
attach themselves by glutinous threads to the appendages 

* The Australian Dromia is an exception, the young leaving the 
egg in the adult form, and clinging to the mother. A similar case is 
seen in the fresh- water cray-fish (Fig. 85), Astacus fltiviatilis ; the 
young of some crustaceans (Balanus) appear at first in the Nauplius 
form, with three pairs of legs. 




Fig. 85. — Astacus fluviatilis. A, two recently hatched cray-fish attached to 
one of the swimmerets of the mother ; e c, ruptured egg-cases ; B, chela 
of a recently hatched cray-fish, x 10. 



CRABS, ETC. 



8l 



of the abdomen (Fig. 85), and are carried about by the 
mother. When first hatched they are generally in the 
zoaea stage. The eyes of the zosea (Fig. 
87, a) are large and black. From the 
carapace extends upward a long horn, an- 
other projecting downward like a tusk. 
They moult several times, gradually chang- 
ing to the megalops form (Fig. 87, b), and 
finally, after successive moults, seek the 
bottom and assume the adult shape (Fig. 
87, c). 

Order I. Barnacles (Cirripcda). — The 
barnacles are fixed crustaceans, and partly from this cir- 
cumstance were long considered mollusks. The adult 




Fig. 86.— A few- 
eggs from a 
common crab, 
enlarged. 




Fig. 87.— Metamorphosis of the crab {Carcinus mcenas). A, zoaea stage : 
B, megalops stage ; C, ready to seek the bottom. 



Balanus (Fig. 88) is round, with a broad base, and at- 
taches itself to shells or rocks. The newly hatched young 
are free-swimmers (Fig. 89, A), but soon acquire a bivalve 
shell, H, and attach themselves to the bottom by their 



82 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 



antennae, that secrete a glutinous substance for the pur- 
pose. C, B>, E show the successive stages to the adult 

form, in which the shell is mul- 
tivalve, the animal anchored by- 
its head, and its feet modified 
into cirri, that waft food into the 
shell and mouth. Goose barna- 
cles are connected with the bot- 
tom or floating objects by long, 
leathery pedicles. They have 
no gills, breathing through their 
skin. 

Note. — Barnacles grow on whales, 
turtles, and floating objects of all 
kinds. Goose - barnacles have been 
found six inches long groAving in the 
mouth of a large sun-fish (mota), and 
a barnacle is found on the feathers of 
penguins in the South Atlantic. 




Fig. 88.— Upper part of adult 
barnacle, showing appear- 
ance of cirri under the mi- 
croscope. 



Order II. Water -Fleas 

{Entomostraca). — A common ex- 
ample is seen in the Cyclops, 
found in fresh water, that may be distinguished by its sin- 
gle eye and egg-sacs. It is just visible to the naked eye. 
Most of this order are parasites upon fishes. The Ler- 
nozans (Fig. 90) live upon the gills of various fishes ; the 
Caligus preys upon halibut, rays, etc., the Argulus upon 
the alewife, the Penella upon the sword-fish and sun-fish, 
while the Nogatus preys upon the man-eater shark. They 
have no gills, breathing through the body-walls or skin. 

Order III. Leaf-footed Crustaceans (Branchiopo- 
dd). — These animals breathe by broad, leaf-like gills upon 
their feet, and secrete a bivalve shell. The Artemia* or 

* Artemia salina (Fig. 91, b) has been made to acquire the charac- 
teristics of Branchipus (Fig. 91, d) by gradually diluting the water 
until it was fresh. 



CRABS, ETC. 



83 




Fig. 89. — Early stages of a barnacle. A, shortly after leaving the egg; 
e, eyes. B, having acquired a bivalve shell, and just before becom- 
ing attached, represented upside down. C, appearance after becoming 
attached — side-view. D, top-view of still later stage, with the shell 
forming around it. £, side-view of later stage, showing appendages 
protruded. (The little marks at the sides of the figures indicate the 
natural size of the object. A, B, highly magnified ; all of these views are 
magnified, and, with the exception of D, are reduced from figures of 
C. Spence Bate.) 

2 




Fig. 90. — A Lernsean (Tracheliastes) of a fresh-water fish (Cyp?'in<z). 1, 
larva, as it leaves the egg. 2, larva, more advanced. 3, adult female, 
showing the egg-sacs. (Nordmann.) 



8 4 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 



brine-shrimp (Fig. 91), live in the brine-vats of various coun- 
tries, the amount of salt sometimes determining the form 





Fig. 91. — Brine-shrimps, a, Branchi- 
pus stagnalis. &, Arternia salina 
whose form depends upon the salt- 
ness of the water. 



Fig. 92 . — Fresh - water 
crustacean, with bi- 
valve shell, e, eye. 



of the animal. They multiply by budding and by eggs. 
The Estheria (Fig. 92) secretes a bivalve shell, microscopic 

rings upon it indicating 
the various moults, the 
cast - off coat being ce- 
mented to the new shell 
which forms beneath. Si- 
da and Daphnia are called 
water-fleas from their ac- 
tivity. The latter carries 
its eggs upon its back. 
The apus (Fig. 93) is an 
interesting form, having 
forty-seven segments and 
as many as sixty pairs of 
limbs. They withstand 
remarkable extremes of 
heat and cold, the eggs 
hatching in snow-water 
after being frozen for two weeks. The Nebalia, repre- 
senting Order IV, Phyllocardia, has leaf-like feet, and 




Fig. 93. — Apus. 



CRABS, ETC. 



85 



passes through no metamorphosis. The body is com- 
pressed, the rostrum distinct from the carapace. 

Order V. Fourteen-footed Crustaceans {Tetra- 
decapoda). In this order are the beach-fleas (Fig. 94), so 
common among the weeds ; the pill-bugs and others living 
in salt and fresh water. The Idotea phosphorea has an 
acute tail-piece, and mimics the eel-grass and fucus with 
its green, gray, and yellow col- 
ors, at night gleaming with 
vivid phosphorescence. They 
live under stones and rock- 
weed, and when touched curl 
into a ball. The eggs are held 
in a little brooding cavity un- 
der the thorax between the 
legs. Many species of Podo- 
cerus and others build curious 
nests in which they take shel- 
ter. A gigantic amphipod has 





Fig. 94. — Sand-hopper (Talitrus 
salt at or). 



Fig. 95. — Mantis shrimp 
{Squilla mantis). 



two enormous faceted eyes that entirely cover the head. 
The Arcturus y from Arctic seas, mimics sea-weed with its 
long antennas, and carries its young about on its back or 
feelers. The Squilla, or mantis shrimp (Fig. 95), repre- 
senting Order VI, Stomapoda, is an interesting form ; the 
gills are attached to the base of the under abdominal feet. 
They burrow in the sand below tide-water. 



S6 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 



Order VII. Ten - footed Crustaceans {.Decapodd) ; 
Long-tailed Crustaceans {Macrura).— The shrimps 
(Fig. 96) are common on nearly all shores. Some possess 




Fig. 96. — Prawn (Palczmon j'amaz'censis), about £ natural size. A, 
B, fifth thoracic appendage of male. (After Huxley.) 



female. 



the faculty of mimicry to a wonderful degree. The chame- 
leon shrimp changes to green and brown, even becoming 
transparent under certain conditions. Deep-red-colored 
ones have been found in the Atlantic, and others from great 
depths have remarkably developed eyes. Cray-fish in the 
Mammoth Cave are blind, and the eyes of Willemcesia, 
from the deep Atlantic, are rudimentary. Lobsters (Fig. 
98) that are familiar on Northern coasts are in Florida re- 
placed by the whip-lobster (Fig. 99), that " has long whips 
instead of the large claws." 



CRABS, ETC. 



87 




■■[■■ 



Fig. 97. — The Norway lobster (Nephrops norvegicus), 
(After Huxley.) 



\ natural size. 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 




Fig. 98. — The common lobster (Homarus vulgaris), \ natural size. 



CRABS, ETC. 



89 




Fig. 99. — Marine cray-fish (Palinurus vulgaris), about \ natural size. 



Note. — On the Florida reef nearly every coral head or branch 
affords protection to one or more cray-fishes, as they are there called. 
The animals partly undermine them, thus serving the coral by pre- 
venting the fatal inroads of sand and mud. 



go 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 




Fig. ioo. — Hermit out of the shell, showing soft abdomen, r, hardened 
ridge which bears against the inner edge of the aperture of the shell ; 
a, <*, appendages to which the eggs are attached. (After Morse.) 




Fig. ioi. — Hermit-crab in the shell of a sea-snail. (After Emerton.) 



CRABS, ETC. 



91 



Hermit - Crabs.— In the Hermits, that are either 
marine or terrestrial, the abdomen is soft (Fig. 100), and 
to protect it they take possession of empty univalve shells 
(Fig. 101), or even old tobacco-pipes thrown overboard by 
sailors,* while others bore into wood, sand, or sponges, the 




Fig. 102. — The English edible crab (Cancer pagitrus), \ natural size. A, 
dorsal view, with the abdomen extended. B, front view of " face " : as, 
antennary sternum ; or, orbit ; r, rostrum ; i, eyestalk ; 2, antennule ; 
3, base of antenna ; 3', free portion of antenna. (After Huxley.) 

* The author kept a land hermit for several months that had taken 
up its quarters in an old clay pipe. It crawled up a table daily to drink 
from a saucer of water placed there for the purpose. 



9 2 CRABS AND INSECTS. 

large claw closing the entrance like an operculum. The 
claws are often brilliantly colored blue, purple, and red. 

Note. — On Bush Key, Tortugas group, the author has often ob- 
served land-hermits and a Gecarcinus climbing bay cedars and rob- 
bing young noddies of their food, despite their vigorous protests. 

The largest ally of the Hermit is the Birgos latro, found 
in the Spice Islands and various parts of the Indian Ocean. 
The abdomen is protected by hard plates ; consequently, 
they do not need a shell. They attain a length of three 
feet. Professor Van Beneden states that one lifted a goat 
from the ground by its ears. They subsist upon cocoanuts, 
breaking the shells by hammering them with their claws. 
They visit the water daily, but breathe air, the gills having 
all the attributes of true lungs. 

Short-tailed Crabs (Brachyura). — The short-tailed 
crabs (Fig. 102) differ from the Hermits in having well- 
developed hind-feet, an abdo- 
men capable of being bent un- 
der the body, and a broad and 
flat carapace. 

Marine Crabs. — The larg- 
est of these is the Macrocheira 
of Japan, that often measures 
twenty-two feet between the large 

biting claws, each of which is ten 
Fig. 103.— Lupea, short-tailed , - lr r . _,, , , 

crab, with the last two claws and a half f eet lon g' The bod y 

adapted for swimming. is small, and resembles a moss- 

covered rock. The claws are 
adapted for crawling. The Lupea (Fig. 103) has the last 
two claws adapted for swimming. 

Note. — Some of the spider-crabs of our coast purposely plant sea- 
weed upon their backs, where it grows, affording them effectual pro- 
tection. A crab deprived of this growth will recover its carapace 
immediately. Cancer ftilgens, according to Sir Joseph Banks, is lumi- 
nous. The most remarkable luminous crustacean, according to Nor- 




CRABS, ETC. 



93 



denskiold, is the little Metridia armata, that exists in such quantities 
in the snow on the shores of the Arctic Ocean that persons and ani- 
mals appear to be walking in fire, the splashes of light presenting a 
wonderful spectacle. The light is of a bluish-white tint, which in the 
spectroscope gives a one-colored Labrador-blue spectrum. 

Oyster-Crabs (Pinnotheres). — These are the delicate 
forms commonly found in oysters and various bivalve 
shells, as well as the water- 
lung of Holothurians (Fig. B 
1 04) . While the oyster-crabs 
find protection in other ani- 





FiG. 104. — A, Pinnotheres, living in a Holothurian {Pinnotheres holo- 
thuritz). B, the zoea stage of the young of A, highly magnified. 

mals, and the hermits steal shells to cover themselves, a 
number of curious forms shown in Fig. 105 take up their 
position upon a branch of coral, as Sideropora palmata, and 






Fig. 105. — Crabs that form galls on corals, a, Cryptochirus (male) ; 6. 
Coralliodytes (female) ; c, Hapalocarcinus marsupialis (female), that 
carries its young in a sac or marsupium. 



finally produce a gall, or are covered by the coral and live 
so imprisoned, obtaining their food through a small hole or 



94 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 



window. One of these crabs (c, Fig. 105) is remarkable 
in having a pouch in which the female carries her young ; 
the sac is formed by a prolongation of the lateral plates 

of the abdomen. 

Land-Crabs. — 
Land-crabs are common 
on all shores, many, as 
the Ocypoda (Fig. 106), 
living in holes, hiber- 
nating in the winter, and 
mimicking the sand in 
their absence of color. 
In the South the land- 
crabs, Gecarcinus (Fig. 107), that live in the bushes, are of 
various tints, equally protective among the leaves of the 
dead bay cedars and the fruit of the prickly-pear, about 
which they cling. They are all swift runners, and in 
Ceylon, a large land-crab is chased on horseback. 




Fig. 106.- 



-Ocypoda, a marine crab that 
lives on land. 




Fig. 107. — Gecarcinus rustico/a, a land-crab. 



Note. — At St. Paul's rocks Professor Moseley observed the richly- 
colored Grapsus y a land and water crab, carrying off young birds ; and 
at Ascension Island the large land-crabs even steal young rabbits from 
their holes and devour them. 



CRABS, ETC 



95 



Order VIII. Merostomata.— The king or horseshoe 
crabs (Fig. 108) attain a length of two feet, and have a 
wide geographical range. The last segment of the ab- 





FlG. 108.— Horseshoe crab. A, Limulus Mo/uccanus, dorsal view. B, 
Limulus rotundicauda, ventral view (after Milne-Edwards) : a, ante- 
rior ; &, middle division of the body ; c, telson ; d, subfrontal area ; e, 
antennules ; f, antenna ; g, operculum ; k, breathing appendages. 



domen forms a long, sharp spine. The cephalo-thorax is 
broad, shaped like a horse's foot ; the feet are arranged 
about the mouth. The abdomen bears six pairs of broad 
swimming feet, the second pair having upon their under 
side a set of about one hundred respiratory leaves or 
plates. The young resemble the extinct trilobites, to 
which they are allied. Some of the extinct forms, as Fig. 
109, attained a length of nine feet. 

Value of Crustaceans. — They are all valuable scavengers. The 
crab, lobster, and shrimp fisheries give employment to thousands of 
persons. The cocoanut-husks that the great Birgos tears up to line its 
nest are used by the Malays in basket and mat making. Concretions 



9 6 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 



from the stomach of the fresh-water cray-fish are used as an antacid. 
The horseshoe is valued as guano. 




Fig. 109. — Gigantic extinct crustacean (Pterygotus), nine feet long, swim- 
ming among Crinoids. (After Buckley. ) 



Specimens for Study. — In dissecting a crab, cray-fish, 
or other specimen, the carapace should be carefully re- 
moved with knife or scissors, the gills examined, the mouth- 
parts removed and compared with cut No. 81, and the 
difference between the parts noted. The claws should 
also be compared, and their various offices thoroughly un- 
derstood. The brain, stomach, and muscles can be stud- 
ied by cutting away the red membranous hypodermis. 
By injecting carmine into the arteries through the heart, 
the arterial system can be traced. The eggs, eyes, etc., 
can be hardened in alcohol, and cut in sections for micro- 



INSECTS. 



97 



scopic examination. The ear and other organs should re- 
ceive particular attention. The smaller crustaceans found 
in ponds, etc., should be examined alive under the micro- 
scope. Barnacles can be found on oyster-shells at any 
restaurant, and when placed in water show their cirri. 

Works on Crustaceans for further reference. 
" Challenger Reports " ; "A Naturalist's Sojourn in Jamaica," 
Gosse ; " Crustacea of the United States Exploring Expedition," J. D. 
Dana ; " North American Astacidae " (Fresh-water lobsters), H. A. 
Hagen, in " Memoirs of Museum of Comparative Zoology," vol. ii, 
No. 3, 1871 ; "Habits of certain Cray-fish," C. C. Abbott, "American 
Naturalist," vol. ix, p. 80 ; " Descriptions of the North American Phyl- 
lopoda," A. S. Packard, Jr. ; " Report of Hayden's Survey," 1873, p. 
613; " Report of Peabody Academy of Sciences," 1873 ; " Report of 
United States Commissioner of Fisheries," 1874 ; " Crustacea," S. J. 
Smith ; " The Lobster and Lobster-Fishing," W. W. Wheildon, " Pro- 
ceedings of American Association for the Advancement of Science," 
vol. xxiii, 1874 ; " Early Stages of the Lobster," " Popular Science 
Monthly," vol. iii, 1872, p. 401 ; " Barnacles," J. S. Kingsley, " Ameri- 
can Naturalist," vol. xi, p. 102; "The Cray-fish," Huxley. 

Class II. — Insects (Insect a). 

General Characteristics. — Arthropoda, with the head, 
thorax, and abdomen distinct ; breathing by air-tubes or 
tracheae ; the young passing through changes called a met- 
amorphosis. 

Skeleton. — The skeleton (Fig. no) is external, and 
composed of a horny substance called chitine. As in the 
crustaceans, the body is made up of segments, numbering 
in the winged forms generally four in the head, three in the 
thorax, and ten or eleven in the abdomen. The mouth- 
parts of insects consist, as a rule, of four separate divi- 
sions ; namely, the upper lip, or labrum j a pair of crushing 
or cutting jaws (mandibles) ; and a smaller pair (maxilla), 
to which small jointed feelers called maxillary palpi are 
attached. The lower lip, or labium, is in reality a pair of 
jaws, and to it are attached another pair of jointed feelers 
5 



9 8 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 



known as labial palpi. Near the compound eyes rise the 
sense-organs, or antenna. The thorax is separated into 
three segments : the first, prothorax, bearing the first pair 
of legs ; the second segment, or mesothorax, bears the elytra 
or first pair of wings — in the beetles, hard, chitinous store- 
house for the wings proper (here is also attached the sec- 




Third leg. 



Mouth-parts. 



Fig. iio. — Skeleton of common beetle. (After Morse.) 



ond pair of legs) ; the third segment, or metathorax, bears 
the third pair of legs and the second pair of wings, that 
are elastic membranes stretched over a framework of 
tubes. The abdomen bears the sting, ovipositor, or spin- 
nerets, as the case may be. The legs are generally com- 
posed of from six to nine joints, and usually terminate in 
two hooks, with perhaps pads or suckers (Fig. in). 

Digestion. — The mouth-parts (Fig. 112, a) are modified 
in different insects for sucking, biting, stinging, etc. The 



INSECTS. 



99 




Fig. iii. — Foot of house-fly, show- 
ing the pads by which it clings. 

food passes by the oesopha- 
gus, b, into a membranous 
stomach called the crop, c y 
and thence, in the biting in- 

Fig. 112. — Longitudinal and verti- 
cal section of a female cockroach 
(Blatta). I to XX, somnites of 
the body; i to n, somnites of 
the abdomen ; A, antenna ; lb, 
labrum ; a, mouth ; b, oesopha- 
gus ; c, crop ; d, proventriculus, 
or second stomach ; h, intestine ; 
t\ rectum ; /, salivary gland ; k, 
salivary receptacle. By an error, 
the duct is made to terminate 
above instead of beneath the 
lingua. H, position of heart ; 
m, cerebral ganglia ; N, thoracic 
ganglia ; /, chyle stomach. (Af- 
ter Huxley.) 



nit Vlll 




IOO 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 



sects, into a second stomach, or gizzard, d, that is provided 
with muscular walls and chitinous plates. From here it 
passes to the true stomach/, and finally to the intestine h. 
Circulation. — The heart, If, is tubular in shape, ex- 
tending along the back, and composed of numerous sacs, 
separated by valves that allow the blood to flow toward 
the head, where it branches out, re- 
turning through the tissues, there 
being no true veins or arteries. 




Fig. 113. — S, spiracle or breathing-plate, with 
the slit in the center which opens to take in 
air. T, part of a breathing-tube, showing 
the spiral thread which keeps it in its round 
shape. 




Fig. 114. — Insect showing the spiracles, or open- 
ings in the sides of the body which commu- 
nicate with the air-tubes within the body : 
w, showing where the wings were attached ; 
h and m, where hind and middle legs were 
attached ; s, spiracle on thorax ; /, tym- 
panum. (After Morse.) 




Fig. 115.— Tracheal or 
air-tube system of 
a larval dragon-fly. 
Trachea? are shaded. 



Respiration. — The insects all breathe by a system of 
air-channels or tubes, and some, as the spiders, by lungs 
as well. The air-tubes are called trachea, and are wound 
with a minute thread (Fig. 113) that seems to preserve their 



INSECTS. 



101 



shape. The tracheae connect with the exterior at various 
parts of the sides of the body, the openings (Fig. 114) being 
called spiracles, stigmata, or breathing-holes. The tubes 
extend over a greater part of the body (Fig. 115), bringing 
fresh air in contact with the blood in the tissues. This is 
even accomplished in the wings, so that they serve as 
lungs as well as organs of flight. Breathing seems to be 
accomplished by a contraction and expansion of the ab- 
dominal segments. 

Nervous System. — The nervous system of insects is 
made up of a chain of ganglia that is connected by a 
double nervous cord, and occupies the ventral portion of 
the body. The portion above the oesophagus is called 
the cerebral ganglia. Fig. 112, m, shows the brain; and 
from here nerves pass to the various sense-organs. The 
ganglia below is called thoracic (Fig. 112, N), and sends 

nerves to the wings, 
legs, and other 
parts. 

Development. — 

Most insects are 

produced by eggs, 

while some appear 

The changes through which 

The butter- 




Fig. 116. — Larva of insects. 



directly in the adult form 
the former pass are called metamorphoses 
flies, beetles, etc., 
pass through three 
changes from the 
egg to the perfect 
insect. The first 
stage is called the 
larva — grub, mag- 
got, or caterpillar 

(Fig. 116). In this form it is worm-like, has numbers of 
feet, eats voraciously, changes its skin (moults) frequent- 
ly, and finally in many instances spins a silken case or 




J 

Fig. 117. — Cocoons. A, showing inside of co- 
coon, containing the remains of a chrysalis- 
skin. 



102 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 



cocoon about itself (Fig. 117). The skin is now cast 
again, and the insect appears a short, seemingly lifeless 
pupa or chrysalis (Fig. 118), in which state 
it remains a greater or less time, finally 
shedding its skin and appearing a perfect 
This is known as a com- 
plete change. Others, 
as crickets, dragon-flies, 
grasshoppers (Fig. 119), 
pass through a partial 
change. Insects are found 
everywhere ; far out at 
sea, as the Halobates (Fig. 
148), in deep caves, in hot 
springs, and on the high- 
est glaciers, as the gla- 
cier-flea (Fig. 133). The bees and ants live seven years, 
some locusts thirteen or seventeen years, while the May- 
flies are born and die within twenty-four hours. In all, 
about 19,000 species- of insects are known. 





Fig. 118.— 
Chrysalides. 



Fig. 119. — Example of 
incomplete change 
or metamorphosis. 
Young; grasshop- 
per : w, wing just 
appearing. 



Sub-Class I. — Malacopoda. 

Peripatus {Peripatidce). — The Peripatus is one of the 
simplest insects, having a long, soft, and cylindrical body, 
bearing from twenty-eight to sixty-six feet. Upon the 
head is a pair of jointed extensible antennae ; the feet are 
soft, and supplied with two claws. When alarmed, it in- 
stantaneously ejects a secretion that seems to crystallize in 
the air, forming a complete web in front. It is found in 
the West Indies, Panama, and Cape of Good Hope. 



Sub-Class II. — Centipedes (Myriapodd). 

General Characteristics . — Head free ; head and thorax 
continuous ; joints cylindrical, and often numbering two 
hundred, each bearing a pair of locomotive organs. 



INSECTS. 



103 



Order I. Chilognatha. — In the Millepedes (Fig. 120), 
the body is cylindrical, each segment bearing a pair of 




Compound eye 



Antenna 




Fig. 120. — A common millepede. The line underneath the figure represents 
the length of the specimen from which the drawing was made. A, a 
magnified view of the head of the milleped represented above. B, a 
magnified view of the left jaw. (After Morse.) 




legs. They are vegetable feeders, and harmless. The 
eggs are laid in the earth, and the. larva at first has only 
three pairs of legs (Fig. 121). Spi- 
rostrephon, from the Mammoth Cave, 
is covered with hair. 

Order II. Pauropoda. — The 
Pauropus has only six segments be- 
sides the head. The young have 
three pairs of feet. 

Order III. Chilopoda.— The 
Centipedes (Fig. 122) attain a length 
of ten or twelve inches, and have a 
flattened body composed of from 

30 to 200 joints or segments. In some the eyes are sim- 
ple ocelli ; in others they are compound. The Scolopen- 
dra heros is extremely poisonous, the glands being in the 
two large fangs (Fig. 123). Cermatia forceps, of the Mid- 
die and Southern States, is also said to be poisonous. 



Fig. 121. — Highly magni- 
fied figure of a very- 
young millepede, short- 
ly after hatching from 
the egg. 



104 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 



Note. — Scolopendra electra is a luminous species, and is common 
in England, Belgium, and France. It is \\ inch long, and has 140 
legs. According to Phipson, the luminosity, like that of some min- 
erals, is only evident after the insect has been exposed to the sun. 
Another luminous species is found in Asia. 





Fig. 122. — Centipede. 



Fig. 123. — Scolopendra Hopei. Under 
surface of head, showing poison-fangs. 



Sub-Class III. — Spiders and Scorpions (Arachnida). 

General Characteristics. — The body is in two sections, 
cephalo-thorax, and abdomen ; four pairs of legs, simple 
eyes, and no antennae. 




Fig. 124. — Hydrachna geographica, a marine mite, and young enlarged. 

Order I. Mites (Acarina). — The mites are mostly par- 
asitic, as the cattle-tick ; others are the cheese and sugar 
mites. The body is oval, and the thorax not separated 



INSECTS. 



105 



from the abdomen. Some are marine (Fig. 124). The 
lowest forms are parasitic in the lungs and liver of man, 
and in the horse and sheep. 

Order II. Scorpions {Pedipalpi). — In the scorpions 
the body is plainly segmented and large, the tail long and 
slender, ending in a curved sting (Fig. 125) that con- 
tains two poison-glands. They have crab-like claws, and 
breathe by lungs as well as tracheae. In Ceylon they at- 
tain a length of twelve inches, in Florida four. In striking, 
the tail is rais-ed over the back and then struck down.* 




Fig. 125. 



-Scorpion with cricket in its claws, s, carapace 
claws ; p, mouth ; d, poison-sting. 



m c, mouth- 



The young are born alive, and cling to the mother. 
False or book scorpions (Chelifer) occur in books, under 
stones, and in the bark of trees. They have no poison- 
gland, and cast their skins in a delicate web, in which they 



* At Loggerhead Key, the extremity of the Florida reef, it is inter- 
esting to note that the scorpions have obtained a foothold and are very 
common, living in board-piles, coming out at night, frequently being 
found and killed in the house, the effect of the sting resembling that 
of the wasp. The so-termed suicide of the scorpion is similar to the 
action of a man tearing his hair or biting his tongue in agony, and 
self-destruction is an accidental result. 



io6 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 




Fig. 126. — Spinnerets of a spi- 
der, t, one of the tubular 
hairs from the spinnerets, 
magnified. 



hibernate. In the whip-scor- 
pions the abdomen ends in 
a long whip or lash. The 
" Daddy Longlegs " belongs 
to this order, and, according 
to Phipson, some are lumi- 
nous. 

Order III. Spiders (Ara- 
neina). General Characteris- 
tics. — Insects having an unseg- 
mented abdomen connected 
with the thorax by a delicate 




Fig. 127.— Tarantula turricula (Treat) 
and its tower-nest. 



pedicel, and bearing several 
pairs of silk - producing or- 
gans — spinnerets (Fig. 126). 
They breathe by lungs and 
tracheae. The young pass 
through no metamorphosis ; 
600 or 800 species occur in 
North America. 

Tarantula. — The Taran- 
tula (Lycosa) is a large, hairy 




INSECTS. 107 

spider, Kving under rocks and in holes in the ground, which 
they often excavate to a depth of nearly a foot, lining the 
sides with silk, and covering the opening with a scaffold- 
ing of mud and wood cemented together. The Tarantula 
nidi/ex erects a tower over its tube, the foundation-pieces 
of wood selected being generally the exact shape of the 
hole. These are piled one upon another precisely as the 
woodsman builds his log-cabin, until a regular chimney is 
the result. T. turricula (Treat) (Fig. 127) erects a some- 
what similar tower ; the 
female carries the young 
on her back. 

Crab - Spiders (My- 
gale). — These often meas- 
ure six or seven inches 
across, including the legs. 
They are covered with FlG I28 ._ Poison _ fang of a spider 

thick, reddish hair, and (Clubiona), highly magnified. 

possess terrible fangs (Fig. 

128). They have four lung-sacs and two pairs of spin- 
nerets. They prey upon birds (Fig. 129) and various 
small animals. 

Mygale HenzH is common on our western plains and 
in Utah. Some are called trap-door spiders, from the fact 
that after their well-like nest is excavated they cover the 
entrance with a circular door that works on a perfect 
hinge. The dwelling is generally formed in gravelly 
ground, and material moved piece by piece, until finally a 
well is sunk perhaps a foot deep. To prevent the sides 
from caving in, the spider now covers them with a coat- 
ing of silk, so that the interior presents a perfectly smooth 
surface. The door is formed of various material, all 
wound about with silk in a firm, flat, oval mass, the spider 
whirling itself about in the operation, finally producing a 
door attached to one side by a silken hinge that fits ex- 
actly, even keeping out water, and is so adjusted that it is 



io8 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 




FlG. 129. — The bird-spider {My gale avicularia) capturing a humming- 
bird. 



self-closing. Upon the top, leaves or mosses are often 
placed, evidently to disguise the entrance. 



INSECTS. 



109 



Note. — Bates, the naturalist, found a tarantula eating a finch, 
while near at hand was another finch entangled in a dense white web 
that was stretched across a hole in a tree. The author once found 
one, the only living creature, upon a dismantled wreck floating in the 
Gulf Stream off the northwestern coast of Cuba. When placed in a 
saucer, its legs extended beyond the edges. Some of this genus are 
trap-door spiders. 

Trap - door Spiders. — The spiders of the genus 
Cteniza and JVemesia are remarkable for their nest-building 
habits. The burrows differ greatly in different species. 
Generally they are cylindrical shafts sunk into the ground, 
lined with silk, and covered by a trap-door with a silken 
hinge, that fits so closely that the opening is never sus- 
pected from without. Some plant mosses, etc., upon their 
doors to mislead enemies, and employ many devices. 

Note. — On the Island of Timos a Cteniza comes out at night, fast- 
ens the trap-door open by threads of silk, and spins a web about six 
inches long. In the morn- 
ing it is taken down, the 
trap closed, and every ves- 
tige of the nocturnal net 
removed. 

The Garden 
Spiders construct 
rich geometrical webs 
(Fig. 130), so deli- 
cately arranged that 
the slightest touch is 
noticed by the in- 
mate. The spinner- 
ets (Fig. T26) are 
generally four or six 
projections pierced 
with numberless 
holes, through which 
a glutinous secretion is drawn that, upon exposure to the 




Fig. 130.— Web of Nephila plumipes, in a 
wire ring reduced, from a photograph. 
(After Wilder.) 



no 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 



air, hardens and forms a silken thread (Fig. 131, s) that is 
seemingly inexhaustible. 




Fig. 131.— Parts of a spider. 1, Under part of a spider's body : t, thorax, or 
chest, from which the eight legs spring, and to which the head is united 
in one piece ; f, fangs ; p, palpi, or feelers, attached to the jaws ; «, ab- 
domen ; fr, breathing-slits ; s, six spinnerets with thread coming from 
them. 2, Front of spider's head : £, eyes ; fl, palpi ; /, front legs ; h, 
hasp of fangs ; _/, poison-fangs ; j, outer jaws. 




A 




Note. — Professor Wilder wound several miles of silk from the 
Southern Nephila plwnipes, the largest spider in the United States 

(Fig. 130). In the Pacific 

C islands an Epeira spins a web 

strong enough to catch birds. 

Professor Moseley found a 

finch entangled in one of 

their webs. Some spiders 

spin a web that bears them 

away through the air like 

a balloon. The Dolomedes 

builds a raft of leaves and 

silk, and launches it in search 

of food. Many mimic their 

surroundings, while others communicate so rapid a movement to their 

webs as to become invisible. The Salticus leaps through the air after 



Fig. 132. — Spiders' nests of different kinds, 
containing eggs. A and C are common 
nests in sheds and barns ; B was found 
under a board in the field— the part 
containing the eggs stands upon a stalk. 
(After Morse). 



INSECTS. 



Ill 



its prey ; the Argyronetra aquatica lives in air-bubbles under water ; 
and the Attus volans of Australia has flaps or wing-like extensions of 
the abdomen, that it elevates or depresses during leaps from plant to 
plant. The egg-sacs (Fig. 132, a) are sometimes attached to the webs, 
carried about by the mother, or affixed to stalks (Fig. 132, b), and re- 
semble small plants. 

Value. — Spiders are useful in destroying other noxious insects. 
The silk is of value to opticians as cross-lines in optical instruments, 
also as a mechanical styptic. The silk of certain spiders has been 
woven. One of the kings of France possessed a coat made of this silk. 
In Bermuda the silk of Nephila has been used as sewing-silk. 

Works on Spiders for farther reference. 
" Structure and Habits of Spiders," J. H. Emerton ; " Harvesting 
Ants and Trap-door Spiders," J. T. Moggridge ; "The Triangle Spi- 
der," B. G. Wilder, "Popular Science Monthly," 1875; "Practical 
Use of Spider-Silk," B. G. Wilder, the " Galaxy," July, 1869 ; " Pedi- 
palpi of North America," H. C. Wood, Jr., "Journal of Philadelphia 
Academy of Natural Science," vol. v ; " Mites, Ticks, and other Aca- 
ri," "Popular Science Monthly," vol. xiv ; " Termayer's Researches 
on Spiders' Silk," "Proceedings of Essex Institute," vol. v; " Pha- 
langerae of the United States," H. C. Wood, Jr., " Proceedings of Essex 
Institute," vol. vi ; " Harper's Monthly," vol. lx, Treat. Packard's 
" Guide to the Study of Insects." 

Sub-Class IV. — Six-Legged Insects (Ifexapcda). 

General Characteristics. — The Hexapods have antennae 
and two pairs of jaws or maxillae. 




FlG. 133. — Glacier-flea {Desoria glacialis). 



Order I. Spring-Tails \JTAysanura). — The spring- 
tails are minute wingless forrn^yhat possess a forked spring, 



II2 CRABS AND INSECTS. 



held in place by a hook, that when released 
sends them high into the air. A single Po- 
dura will deposit 1,360 eggs. The glacier-flea 
(Fig. 133), found upon the glaciers of Europe 
and on snow-banks of North America and 
Europe, belongs to the order. Some species 
have bristles instead of springs, as the Cam- 
podea, found under stones and old wood. 

Order II. Lace- Winged Insects (Neu- 
ropterd). — General Characteristics. — Insects 
having four fine net-veined wings, generally 




k 



Fig. 134.— 



a long, slender abdomen, and mouth adapted 

Larva of . . 

Ephemera. for biting. 

May-Flies (Ephemera). — These remark- 
able insects are of a greenish-brown color, with gauze-like 
unequal wings dotted with brown spots. The larva (Fig. 
134) is about an inch long, its sides bearing several plume- 
like gills by which it breathes in the water. 

Value. — In some countries they occur in such numbers that they 
are used as guano. The Central Africans make bread of them. 

Dragon-Flies (Libellulidd). — The darning-needles 
(Fig. 135) are adorned with lustrous metallic tints and 
lace-like wings. The abdomen is long and bears no sting ; 
the eyes are compound and accompanied by three ocelli. 
The eggs are deposited in the water, and are hatched into 
flattened larvae (Fig. 135, a) that lead an aquatic life for 
about two years. They secure their prey with a proboscis 
with hooks and joint that when at rest folds over the face 
and is called the mask, m. The pupa, b, finally creeps 
up the stem of a plant, bursts from its old skin, and ap- 
pears a perfect insect, c* 

* In Lombok, Malay Archipelago, the natives catch the large 
species and eat them. The American species are voracious ; the larvee 
catch young fish, and the adult has been seen to take minnows from 
a pond. 



INSECTS. 



"3 



Caddis-Flies (Phryganea). — The caddis-flies often 
have antennae twice as long as the body. The eggs are 




Fig. 135.— Life of the dragon-fly, about one half life-size, a, grub living in 
the water ; m, mask or long lower lip with which it seizes its prey ; b, dragon- 
fly creeping out of its last grub-skin ; c, perfect dragon-fly on the wing. 




carried about by the female, 

attached to her abdomen, and 

finally deposited upon some 

water-plant where they hatch, 

the larvae seeking the bottom, 

where they build coverings 

(Fig. 136) of wood, stone, 

shell, or sand. When about 

to change into a pupa they close the mouth of the case, 

finally biting their way out, and crawling to the surface a 

perfect insect. 



Fig. 136. — Caddis-worm, with its 
case, made of sticks. 






ii4 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 



Ant- Lion (Myrmeleon). — The ant-lion in its complete 
state resembles a small dragon-fly. The eggs are laid in 
dry, sandy places, the young larvae when hatched excavat- 
ing a pitfall by whirling their bodies about, and throwing 
the sand out (Fig. 137). The pit complete, the ant-lion 




Fig. 137. — Ant-lion. Adult, and larva?, the forceps of one showing at the 
bottom of the pitfall. 



conceals itself at the bottom, only its forceps appearing, 
ready to grasp the ants that tumble in. This hunting life 
is led for two years, when it envelops itself in a round 
ball of sand and silk, and in three weeks breaks out a per- 
fect insect. 

Note. — The aphis-lion {C/vysopa) lays eggs that mimic delicate 
plants or fungi. They appear growing from the ground attached to 
stalks, and are placed near food adapted to the young. 

White-Ants (Termitidce). — These insects in North 
America are generally of four kinds : winged kings and 
queens, and soldiers and workers that are wingless. The 
workers are the smallest and youngest, and build the nest, 
attend the queen, young, etc. The soldiers are those that 
have undergone the first metamorphosis.* They have large 

* Packard considers the soldiers and workers specialized forms. 



INSECTS. 



"5 



heads and powerful jaws. The African termites * build 
immense nests (Fig. 138), and the queen is often 40,000 
times larger than the workers. 

Value. — Eaten in Central Africa, and the nests used as fuel. 




Fig. 13S. — White ants, showing enormous queen, male, worker, and soldier, 
and section of nest, showing the queen's cell. 

* Their hills have been seen twelve feet high and nearly one hun- 
dred feet in circumference. They are divided into various apartments, 
the semi-egg-shaped cell in the center containing the imprisoned queen 
who grows sometimes to a length of six inches. The workers attend 
the royal chamber, removing the eggs that are laid by millions, and 
placing them in nurseries or cemented cells made for the purpose. The 
workers do great damage, and in the Isle of France a new building was 
ruined in a few months by them. In Colombo, Ceylon, a large bouse 
fell completely in pieces, the result of their ravages. 



n6 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 



Works on Neuroptera for further reference. 
" Synopsis of described Neuroptera of North America," H. A. 
Hagen, "Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections," vol. iv, No. I, 1862 ; 
"Transformations and Anatomy of Corydalus Cornutus," Holdeman 
and Leidy, " Memoirs American Academy," vol. iv ; " Immature State 
of the Odonata," L. Cabot, "Catalogue of Museum Comparative Zo- 
ology," No. 5, 1872; "Caddis-Worms and their Metamorphoses," 
" Popular Science Review," July, 1868. 




Fig. 139. — Praying mantis. 



Order III. Straight- Winged Insects {Orthopterd). 
— General Characteristics. — Insects having four straight, 
narrow, net-veined wings ; metamorphosis complete ; about 
5,000 species are known. 



INSECTS. 



117 



Mantis (Man-tides). — These insects (Fig. 139) have 
elongated bodies, with the fore-legs toothed and adapted 
for grasping their prey, and are remarkable for their 
curious postures, that, with their coloring, is protective. 
They are voracious, attacking their fellows and other in- 
sects. Mantis argetitina, from South America, according to 
Burmeister, catches small birds. The eggs are deposited 
in oblong clusters on fences, assuming the general color 
of the surroundings. 

Note. — From the supplicating position of the fore-legs (Fig. 139), 
they are called the praying mantis, and in Africa certain natives vene- 
rate them. A pink mantis in Java mimics an orchid, and captures the 
insects that alight on it by mistake. Another, in the Philippine Isl- 
ands, resembles a dried leaf. 

Walking-Sticks 

(Phasmidce). — The walk- 
ing-sticks (Fig. 140) re- 
semble the Mantidce, but 
the fore-legs are not adapt- 
ed for grasping. They 
are wonderful mimics, 
their bodies resembling 
old and new twigs. One 
even mimics a moss- 
grown stick, its legs and 
body being covered with 
curious irregular growths. 
In the Malay Archipelago 
and South America they 
attain a length of four- 
teen inches. 

Walking-Leaves 
[Phylliutn). — The wing-covers, in these insects (Fig. i4 x )> 
so imitate leaves that they are readily taken for them. 
Even the veins and midrib of the leaf are often perfect, 




Fig. 140. — Walking-stick (P/iasma), 
wingless orthopterous insect. 



n8 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 



and mold-spots of various colors are also mimicked in 
some, so that the insect resembles a dried leaf well de- 
cayed. The eggs might even be taken for deeply-ribbed 
seeds. 

Grasshoppers (Acrydii). — The grasshoppers (Fig. 
142) have a compressed body, short antennae, and hind- 
legs adapted for leaping. Their noise, 
which is often deafening, is made by rub- 
bing the thighs (Fig. 143) against the fore- 





Fig. 142. — Grasshopper. 



Fig. 141. — Phyl- 
Hum siccifoli- 
um, feeds on 
leaves, and 
mimics fresh 
leaves. 




b 



\ 

Fig. 143. — Leg of a grasshopper, magnified, showing 
ridge of fine teeth on the inside of the leg, marked a, 
by which the insect rasps the wing; 6, c, different 
views of ridge of fine teeth, highly magnified. 



wings. Their eggs are deposited, 50 to 100 at a time, in 
a cocoon-shaped mass, in the ground, though the female 
has no produced ovipositor. The organs of hearing are 
at the base of the abdomen. 



Note. — Some species migrate in such vast numbers that they 
have been known to darken the sun. Their bodies, once washed 
ashore on the African coast, formed a wall fifty miles long and three 
or four feet in height. Jaegar passed through a swarm in Russia 
400 miles long and two feet deep. They threatened a famine, and 
30,000 soldiers, armed with shovels, were sent out to reduce their 
numbers. In 1478 30,000 persons starved to death in Russia, the 
result of their raids. 



INSECTS. 



Iig 



Locusts (Locustarid). — The green locusts (Fig. 144) 
have large heads, long, slender antennae and legs. The 
base of the ante- 
rior wing is trans- 
parent, forming 
a drum, with 
which the males 
utter shrill calls, 
the sounds in 
some species be- 
ing different at 
day and night. 
The female has a long ovipositor for boring holes in the 
ground and wood for the reception of its eggs. The katy- 
did is a familiar form, making the curious noise from 
which they are named by rubbing the inner surface of the 
hind-legs against the outer surface of the front-wings. 

Note. — Mr. Belt observed a locust that so resembled a leaf that 
the ants ran over it, completely deceived. 




Fig. 144. — Meadow locust {Orchelimum vulgare). 




Fig. 145. — 1, wingless cricket ; 2 and 4, field-cricket ; 3, house-cricket. 



Crickets (Gryllidce). — The crickets (Fig. 145) have a 
somewhat cylindrical body, large head, placed vertically, 



120 CRABS AND INSECTS. 

and long antennae, while the ovipositor is often as long as 
the entire body. The shrill cry is the call of the male, 
made by elevating the fore-wings and rubbing them on 
the hinder ones. Their eggs often exceed 300 in number, 
and are generally placed in the ground. 

Note. — The mole cricket shows great affection for its eggs, placing 
them in underground cemented cells, and moving them near the surface 
or deeper, according to the weather. They have obtained such a hold 
upon the extreme outer keys of the Florida reef that it is almost im- 
possible to cultivate anything. 

Works on Orthoptera for further reference. 

" North American Orthoptera and Catalogue of New England Spe- 
cies," S. H. Scudder, in " Boston Journal of Natural History," vol. vii ; 
" Songs of the Grasshoppers," S. H. Scudder, "American Naturalist," 
vol. iii, p. 113. 

Order IV. Half- Winged Insects (Hemiptera). — 
General Characteristics. — Bugs having the mouth-parts in 
the form of a sucking beak ; the fore-wings thickened at 
their base. 

Bird-Lice (Mallophaga). — These are low forms, para- 
sitic upon the hairs and feathers of other animals. Nirmus 
lives on birds, Gyropus on the por- 
poise, etc. 

Bed - Bugs (Membranacei). — 
In this family are found the flat- 
bodied bed-bugs — Cimex (Fig. 
146). The eggs are oval, the 
young escaping by pushing up a 
regular lid at one end. They in- 
Fig. 146.— Bed-bug. fest wood-work, pigeons, swallows, 

bats, and various animals. 
Chinch-Bugs {Lygceida). — In the common chinch- 
bug the female deposits about 500 eggs twice in a season. 
They appear upon wheat in June, and afford a good ex- 
ample of incomplete metamorphosis (Fig. 147). 




INSECTS. 



121 



Note. — In 1864 chinch -bugs caused a loss in wheat and corn of 
$100,000,000 ; and in 1850 their ravages in Illinois alone amounted to 
,000,000. 




Fig. 147. — Different stages of the chinch-bug. a, egg ; b, newly-hatched 
larva ; c, larva after first molt ; d, larva after second molt ; e, pupa ; 
/, perfect insect. 



Water-Measure Insects (Hydrometridcz). — These 
are narrow, boat-shaped insects, having long legs with 
which they dart over ponds and 
streams. The Halobates (Fig. 148) 
is found on the ocean, hundreds of 
miles from land, with its eggs. 

Water-Boatman (Notonectidee). 
— These aquatic insects dart about 
upon their backs with great rapidity, 
using their hind-legs, that are edged 
with' strong cilia, and blade-like, as 
oars. They fly, swim, and dive with 
equal ease. The eggs are attached 
to aquatic plants. 

Harvest- Flies (Cicadidce). — 
The seventeen-year Cicada (Fig. 149) 
is wedge-shaped, with a broad head 

and prominent eyes. The shrill sound is made by a drum 
like organ at the base of the abdomen. The eggs, nura 




Fig. 148. — Halobates, an 
insect that goes to sea. 



122 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 




Fig. 149. — Seventeen-year cicada. 





Fig. 150. — A portion of a grass- 
stem, with the young froth-in- 
sects (Ptyelus) magnified, <z, 
. the insect reaching out the 
hinder part of the body to se- 
cure a bubble of air ; &, an in- 
sect allowing a bubble of air 
to escape in the fluid — the dot- 
ted line b indicates the bub- 
ble ; c, the mouth-parts, like a 
sting, piercing the grass. (Af- 
ter Morse.) 



bering 400 or 500, are depos- 
ited the last of May in holes 
in the twigs of the oak, so 
formed by the ovipositor that 
the wood covers them. They 
hatch in about six weeks, the 
larvae burrowing in the ground 
and remaining nearly seven- 
teen years, then appearing in 
the adult form. Allied to them 
are the lantern -flies (Fulgo- 
ridce)* 

Leaf-Hoppers (Cercopi- 
dcE). — The tree- or leaf-hop- 
pers are remarkable for their 
strange shapes. They are 
small, with broad, triangular 
heads, and hind-legs adapted 
for leaping. The froth-insect 

* The following authors have ex- 
pressed their belief from observation 
and other sources in the phosphores- 
cent properties of the Fulgotidce : 
Madame Merian, Dr. Donovan, au- 
thor of " Insects of India," Marquis 
Spinola, a colleague of Mr. West- 
mael, Lady Seymour, and Dr. Phip- 
son. 



INSECTS. 



123 



(Ptyelus) is common in the grass in early summer. When 
hatched, the young crawl up blades of grass, puncture 
them with their mouths, and suck the juice, a watery fluid 
escaping from various pores of the insect and completely 
covering it. To obtain air, its tail is thrust through the 
fluid (Fig. 150, a), seizing a bubble by means of claspers, 
that passes along beneath the abdomen, entering the spi- 
racles. After a time the liquid becomes filled with air, 
b y and assumes the frothy appearance familiar as frog- 
spittle, from which the perfect insect finally escapes. 

Bark-Lice 
( Cocci dee) . — T h e 
bark-lice are mi- 
nute scale-like in- 
sects, the males 
alone having wings. 
The cochineal 
(Fig. 151) is a fa- 
miliar form of the 
family. 

Value. — The coch- 
ineal industry gives em- 
ployment to thousands 
of persons. From Coc- 
cus siensis comes wax ; 
400,000 pounds have 
been obtained in a sin- 
gle year, and made into 
candles, etc. 




Fig. 151 



-t, Cochineal insects on a branch of 
cactus ; 2, female ; 3, male. 



Plant-Lice (Aphidai)— These insects (Fig. 152) have 
flask-shaped bodies and a three-jointed beak. They mul- 
tiply in a marvelous manner. Eggs are deposited by the 
impregnated female in the autumn that hatch in the spring, 
producing, as a rule, wingless forms, that in turn produce 
not eggs but living winged or wingless young, that in ten 
or eleven days produce others, and so on, so that the origi- 



124 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 




Fig. 152. — Aphis. 



nal female may be represented in the twelfth generation 
by one quintillion descendants, all born in a single sum- 
mer. Upon the approach of cold weather, or from a lack 
of food, males and females are pro- 
duced by the viviparous form, and 
eggs are laid that in the spring give 
rise to successive broods, as above. 
Order V. Beetles (Coleopterd). 
— General Characteristics. — Insects 
having their fore-wings thickened, 
forming horny sheaths, called elytra, 
or wing-covers for the hinder pair, 
that are principally used in flight ; 
mouth-parts adapted for biting ; 
metamorphosis complete. 

The Girdler (Ondderes).— This 
beetle displays remarkable intelli- 
gence in providing for its young. 
The eggs are deposited in perforations in the tender 
brushes of hickory, and, as the young require dead wood 
to eat, the mother girdles the limb below the eggs with 
her mandibles, so that it dies by the time the larva 
hatches. 

Spring-Beetles (Elateridci). — These beetles are light- 
givers (Fig. 153), and when placed upon their backs have 
the power of spring- 
ing repeatedly into 
the air by using a 
spine situated be- 
tween the legs. The 
larvae are known as 
wire-worms, and feed 
upon vegetable mat- 
ter, sometimes re- 
maining five years 
in the larval state. The yellow luminous spots are upon 




Fig. 153. — A luminous beetle {Pyrophorus 
noctiluciis). 



INSECTS. 



125 



each side of the thorax, and emit a vivid light visible even 
in broad daylight. 

Note. — The light of the common fire-fly {Lampyris) gives a spec- 
trum from which blue and violet are omitted. Jaeger, the naturalist, 
states that the Elaters were frequently the means of saving his life, 
by lighting his way out of the dense forests of St. Domingo. 







Fig. 154. — Diving-beetle ^Dytiscus marginalis). g, grub, showing pincers. 

Diving-Beetles {Dytiscidce) — These aquatic beetles 
(Fig. 154) are of an oval or rounded form, with the pos- 
terior legs fringed for swimming, and feet provided with 
suckers (Fig. 155). The larvae are ferocious creatures, 
called water-tigers (Fig. 154, g), having flattened heads and 
scissor-like jaws, with which they capture small fishes, tad- 
poles, and insects. The body ends in a pair of respiratory 
tubes, that are thrust into the air. When ready to change, 
the larva creeps ashore, builds a round cell, and in five 



126 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 



days assumes the pupa state, a few weeks later appearing 
as a full-fledged beetle. Others of more or less interest 

are the long-horned 
beetles (Cerambyeidce), 
weevils (Curculioni- 
dce), tiger-beetles (Ct~ 
cinde/a), ground-bee- 
tles (Carabus), bury- 
ing-beetles (Silphidce), 
etc. 

Works on Coleoptera for 
further reference. 

" List of Coleoptera of 
North America," J. L. Le 
Conte, " Smithsonian Mis- 
cellaneous Collections," 
vol. vi, No. 3 ; " Larval 
Habits of the Blister-Bee- 
tles, and Remarks on oth- 
er Species of the Family 
Meloidse," C. V. Riley, 
"Transactions of St. Louis 
Academy," vol. iii, No. 4; "Colorado Potato Beetles," C. V. Riley, 
"Popular Science Monthly," vol. vii ; "Annales des Sciences Natu- 
relles," 1869-70. 

Order VI. Two-Winged In- 
sects (Diftera). — General Charac- 
teristics. — Two-winged insects with 
mouths formed for sucking or lap- 
ping, composed of from two to six 
needle-like bristles forming a pro- 
boscis encircled in a sheath ; meta- 
morphosis complete. 

Flies (Mused). — The common 
fly hibernates in winter. The eggs 
are deposited in offal about sta- 
bles, remaining in the pupa state 




Fig. 155. — Suckers on tarsus of fore- 
limb of Dytiscus marginalis. 




m> 



Fig. 156. — Blue-bottle fly 
{Musca vomitoria), larva 
and pupa. 



INSECTS. 



127 





Fig. 158. — Showing 
compound and sim- 
ple eyes of fly. 
A, head, enlarged 
8 times : c, com- 
pound eye ; s, sim- 
ple eyes. B, por- 
tion of the surface 
of a compound eye, 
highly magnified. 



Fig. 157. — Tongue of blow-fly. 



(Fig. 156) about fourteen days. 
The proboscis of the fly (Fig. 
157) is a fleshy, tongue-like 
organ bent under the head 
when at rest. In flying, the 
wings describe a figure 8 in 
the air, making 19,800 revolu- 
tions in a minute, or 9,400 
simple oscillations. The eyes 
(Fig. 158) are both compound 
and simple. The feet (Fig. 
in) have delicate pads for 
clinging upon smooth surfaces. 
Fleas (Pulicidce) . — The 
fleas (Fig. 160) are wingless, 
have a compressed body, and 




Fig. 159. — Spiracle of a fly. 



V ' 



128 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 



, f :s^/^ 




Fig. i6o. — Metamorphosis of the flea {Pulex trritans). 

two simple eyes. The eggs of 
the cat-flea are eight or ten in 
number, oval, and ^ of an inch 
long. The larva resembles a 
minute caterpillar, and has four 
long hairs on the side of each 
joint. In twelve days in sum- 
mer, in which time the larvae at- 
tain their full growth, they in- 
close themselves in a small silken 
cocoon, remaining in this condi- 
tion from eleven to sixteen days, 
finally appearing in the pupa 
form. 

Note. — If a man could jump as high 
in proportion as a flea, a leap over the 
Capitol at Washington would be an easy 
feat. A flea can draw one hundred times 
its weight, and so easily tamed are these 
minute creatures that a trained compa- 
ny of them was exhibited in New York 
a few years ago. Through a magnifying- 
glass they could be seen standing erect, 
drawing carriages in which were seated 




Fig. 161. — Lancets of the fe- 
male gnat : # , labium ; b, b, 
mandibles ; c, c, maxillas ; 
d, tongue ; c, labrum. 



INSECTS. 



129 



other fleas ; others marched to and fro armed with spears and hauling 
cannon, while others still, as prisoners, dragged about chains and balls. 

Mosquitoes (Culirid<z).—The gnats and mosquitoes 
have long and slender mouth-parts, the sucker consisting 




Fig. i62.-Metamorphosis of mosquito. Eggs, larva, later stage on the 
raft, and adult. 

of six bristles (Fig. 161) folded together in a gutter-like 
case Their legs are long, and body elongated and slen- 
der, antenna fringed (Fig. 163). The eggs (Fig. 162) are 



130 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 



deposited on the water, and the larvae breathe by a star- 
shaped organ at the hinder extremity, through which air 
passes to the tracheae. They finally shed their skins and 

appear as pupae, in which state 
they breathe through two tubes 
in the thorax. In a few days 
the skin breaks between the 
breathing-tubes and the insect 
emerges, and, after floating 
about for a while on the old 
skin as a raft, it flies away a 
perfect insect. 




Fi 



163. — Antenna of mos- 
quito, magnified. 



Note. — In the small town of Elizabethport, Russia, in the month 
of June, 1830, 30 horses, 40 foals, 70 oxen, 90 calves, 150 hogs, and 
400 sheep were killed by mosquitoes alone. The females generally do 
the most damage. 



Works on Diptera for further reference. 

" Transformations of the Common 
House-Fly, with Notes on Allied Forms," 
A. S. Packard, Jr., " Proceedings of the 
Boston Society of Natural History," vol. 
xv ; "Catalogue of Described Diptera of 
North America," R. Osten-Sacken, in 
" Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections," 
vol. iii, No. 1, 1S62 ; " Animal Parasites 
and Messmates," Van Beneden. 

Order VII. Butterflies and 
Moths (Lep id op tera). — General 
Characteristics. — Small-headed in- 
sects with four wings, which with the 
body are covered with scales ; the 
tongue consisting of two tubular or 
hollow threads adapted for suction, 
and coiled when not in use ; meta- 
morphosis complete, the larvae or 
caterpillars having abdominal legs. 




Fig. 164. — Head of Sphinx- 
moth, showing; feathered 
antennae, coiled tongue, 
and pollen-masses at- 
tached to the eyes that 
have been taken from 
some f.ower. 



INSECTS. 



131 



Moths. — General Characteristics. — The moths are, as 
a rule, nocturnal or night-fliers, and are distinguished from 
the butterflies by their feathered antennae (Fig. 164). 

Dwarf-Moths 
(Tineida?). — The 
common clothes- 
moth deposits its 
eggs in woolens, the 
white larvae creat- 
ing much damage 
in making their co- 
coons. 

Silk-Worm Moths {Bombycidce).— 
These large moths have heavy, thick bod- 
ies, small heads, the tongue short and 
almost useless. The eggs are deposited 
upon the mulberry (Fig. 166) and other 
leaves, the young worms eating for about 
a month, and then forming a yellow or 





Fig. 165. — Canker-worm moth, eggs, and worms. 
a, female canker-worm moth laying her eggs, b ; 
c, top-view, and d, side-view, of an egg, magni- 
fied ; e, canker-worm eating its way out of the 
egg, magnified ; f, magnified view of canker- 
worm ; g, natural size of canker-worm after leav- 
ing the egg ; h, male canker-worm moth. 



Fig. 167. — Swing- 
ing cocoon of a 
South Ameri- 
can moth. 



132 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 



white cocoon. They now change to a chrysalis, and in 
eight or nine months escape, a perfect insect. A South 
American member of this family has a swinging, basket- 
like cocoon (Fig. 167). 



Fig. 166. — The siik-worm, moth, and cccoon, on a mulberry branch. With 
view of silk works, illustrating the economic value of the worm. 



INSECTS. 



33 



Note. — In France and Italy four days are required to form the 
cocoon, while in England and certain parts of India forty-six days are 
necessary for its completion ; 360 of these cocoons weigh i-J- pound. 
In the United States the Telia polyp hemus is valued for its silk. Little 
windows have been cut in their cocoons and mica inserted, so that the 
growth of the chrysalis might be observed. 

Value. — The silk goods produced yearly in the United States alone 
are valued at $27,000,000. 




Fig. 168. — Death's-head moth. 



Hawk-Moths (Sphtngidce). — The hawk-moths are 
large, swift-flying insects, with stout, spindle-shaped bodies, 
the tongue remarkable for its length. The curious death's- 
head moth (Fig. 168) belongs to this family. 

Value. — The moths fertilize flowers, carrying pollen from one to 
another, often attached to their eyes (Fig. 164). 



134 CRABS AND INSECTS. 

Butterflies (Papilionidce). — General Characteristics. — 
The butterflies are day-flying Lepidoptera, and distin- 
guished from the moths by their knobbed antennse. 

Vanessa.— In this genus (Fig. 169) the wings are richly 
marked. The larva is cylindrical, and covered with stout, 
long-branching spines. The V. antiopa is one of the com- 
monest forms, and famous for its habits of hibernation. 




Fig. 169. — Metamorphosis of the peacock butterfly (Vanessa Id). 

Sulphur-Butterflies (Colias).* — In this family the 
wings are rounded, and form a gutter for the reception of 
the abdomen. They are the commonest butterflies we have. 

* In some countries they flock upon certain trees, completely 
covering them, so that in the sun they appear to have a golden hue. 
Darwin met a vast cloud of them, ten miles at sea, off the Bay of San 
Bias, and as far as could be seen the swarm extended. Sir Emerson 
Tennent observed a flock in India that was several days in passing a 
given point at a high rate of speed. Sir Robert Schomburgh observed 
a cloud of another genus crossing the Essequibo River, South America, 
that was nine miles wide, and was nine hours in passing the stream. 



INSECTS. 



135 



Leaf- Butterflies {Kallima). — When on the wing the 
East Indian Kallima ftaralekta presents a brilliant purple 
color, but when it alights it seems to disappear from view, 




Fig. 170. — The protective resemblance of the leaf-butterfly (Kallima). (Af- 
ter Wallace.) 

so exactly resembling a leaf (Fig. 170) that persons fail to 
see it when within a few inches. The tail of the hind- 



i3<5 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 



wings is pressed against the limb, forming the stem and 
completing the deception. 

Note. — A butterfly observed by Wallace in the Malay Archipelago, 
when pursued by birds, imitated the flight of a poisonous butterfly so 
effectually that the pursuers gave up the chase. Kallima Hugeli, of 
India, when not in flight, mimics dry oak-leaves, and can hardly be dis- 
tinguished from a dead leaf. The Indian butterfly Melanitis mimics 
various species of fungi, utterly disappearing from sight when it alights 
a few feet away among the dry spikes of pine-leaves, etc. ; while in the 
Indian Kallima machis no two species are alike, all resembling dead 
leaves, even the minute fungi growing upon them being imitated in 
various ways. 

Works on Butterflies and Moths for further reference. 
" List of Butterflies of North America," H. S. Scudder, " Buffalo 
Academy of Science," vol. viii ; " North American Silk-Worms," L. 
Trouvelot, " American Naturalist," vol. i ; " Silk-Worms and Silk- 
Culture," in " Popular Science Monthly," vol. iii ; " Monograph of the 
Geometrid Moths of North America," A. S. Packard, Jr., " Memoir of 
Hayden's Survey," vol. x ; " List of Noctuidae of North America," A. 
R. Grote, " Bulletin of the Buffalo Academy of Natural Science," vol. 
ii, 1874. 

Order VIII. Membrane -Winged Insects (Hyme- 

nopterd). — General Characteristics. — Insects having trans- 
parent wings with few veins. The mouth-parts adapted 
for lapping, biting, or cutting. The females of some have 
a sting or piercer. Metamorphosis complete. 

Horn-Tails ( Uroceridd). — The males have a long 
horn on the abdomen. The saw of the female is attached 
to the middle of the abdomen, extending 
far beyond it. 

Gall- Flies {Cynipidce). — To these in- 
sects (Fig. 171) are due most of the ex- 
Fig. 171.— crescences called galls, found upon oaks 
Gall-fly. and other plants. They have short, broad 

heads, the thorax oval and thick, the ab- 
domen compressed and attached to the thorax by a short, 
delicate peduncle. The females puncture a leaf or branch 




INSECTS. 



137 




Fig. 172. — Ichneumon-fly, showing 
mechanism of ovipositor. 



with their ovipositors ; the blades of the latter divide, 
and the egg is forced through this channel into the 
wound. An abnormal growth of wood is formed about it, 
from which in time the perfect insect escapes. 

Value.— ^-A decoction of certain galls, with sulphate of iron, forms 
the principal ingredient of ink. 

Ichneumon-Flies 

(Ichneumonidce). — These 
insects (Fig. 172) are re- 
markable for depositing 
their eggs in other in- 
sects, using for the pur- 
pose a long ovipositor 
that is protected by a 
sheath composed of four 
stylets. Rhyssa persuaso- 

ria bores into solid wood in search of its prey. The 
larva, a soft, footless grub, feeds upon its host, and when 

about to become a pupa 
spins a cocoon, from 
which it escapes in the 
adult form. 

Ants (Formic aria). 
— The ants, in the opin- 
ion of Sir John Lub- 
bock, stand next to man 
in point of intelligence. 
They erect wonderful 
dwellings, store up food, 
are agriculturists, keep 
and tend their cattle 
(Aphidce), seem to pos- 
sess a sign-language, go 
to war in organized bod- 
ies, and in many ways show remarkable intelligence. The 




Fig. 173. — Ant's head and foot. Head : 
<?, e, eyes ; a, a, antennae ; m, m, man- 
dibles ; /, /, jaws ; t, tongue. Foot : 
s, spur ; <r, s, comb of spur ; /c, leg- 
comb. 



138 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 



head (Fig. 173) is generally triangular, the antennae are slen- 
der, and the eyes of two kinds — compound and ocelli ; the 




Fig. 174. — Foraging ants returning with slaves and captives after a bat- 
tle (magnified). 



INSECTS. 



J 39 



former consist of many facets differing in different spe- 
cies. They live in communities of often 500,000. Both 
males and females are winged, while a third and wing- 
less kind are called workers. These have the care of 
the young, and are builders. In some ants the neuters 
or workers have powerful jaws and are called soldiers, 
defending the family. During the summer the males 
and females leave the nest and fly away, soon losing 
their wings. The females are taken by workers to form 
new nests and become queens. They live seven or eight 
years. 

Foraging Ants. — In South America the Ecito?is are 
greatly dreaded. They march against other ants, and car- 
ry away their larvae (Fig. 174) and pupae to bring them up 
as slaves. In the (Ecodoma the nest is of enormous dimen- 
sions, extending one hundred feet or more beneath the 
ground. They cut leaves from trees to thatch their nests. 
The leaves are also used to encourage the growth of fungi 




Fig. 175.— Living bottles — honey-ants expanded with honey. 

upon which the young are fed. They tunnel under rivers, 
as the broad Paraiba of Brazil, a fact proved by forcing 
smoke through the tunnel. 

Agricultural Ants.— The agricultural ants of Texas 



40 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 



have regular farms on which they seem to cultivate the 
plant Aristida stricta. 

Honey-Ants. — In the Myrmecocystus melliger of Tex- 
as, certain individuals are selected as storehouses by the 
rest, filled with honey (Fig. 175), and suspended in special 
apartments as living bottles. They are cared for and 
tended by the others, and made to give up their honey 
when it is needed. 

Value. — The honey-ants are eaten as a delicacy in Mexico. For- 
mic acid is obtained from the bodies of others. All are scavengers. 




Fig. 



76. — Mud-dauber wasp 
building nest. 



Mud-Wasps.— 

These large wasps (Fig. 
177, d) paralyze insects 
with their sting, storing 
them up in a benumbed 
condition in the egg- 
cells as food for the 
future young (Fig. 177). 
The nests are either 




Fig. 177. — Showing a wasp's nest of four 
cells cut open, #, representing a cell 
with the egg at the bottom, and the re- 
maining space filled with spiders ; b, 
the larva full-grown, after having con- 
sumed all the spiders ; c, the pupa ; 
and d, the imago, or perfect mud-wasp, 
ready to come out. 




Fig. 178.— Mud-cells of a South American 
wasp attached to a branch. 



INSECTS. 



141 



built in the sand or gravel. Those of other species are 
attached to various objects (Fig. 178). The sand, wood, 
and paper wasps are other familiar forms. 

Note. — The wasps live in temporary societies composed of males, 
females, and neuters or workers. The sting of the latter is poisonous. 
The males die at the approach of winter, the females hibernating. In 
spring their nests, composed of ground vegetable matter or sand, are 
formed, and the young reared. The first brood are neuters, and assist 
in building a nest for the others ; finally, in the autumn, a third genera- 
tion is produced, composed of males and females, the nest now contain- 
ing perhaps one hundred cells. 

Carpenter-Bees. — Among the bees, which constitute 
the highest forms of the Hymenoptera, the carpenter-bees 
(Xylocopa) are the giants. They bore tunnels in solid wood 
at the rate of one quarter 
to one half an inch a day. 
In the Virginia carpen- 
ter-bee the entrance is at 
first against, then follows 
the grain of the wood, the 
tunnel often being from 
one to one and a half feet 
in length. This is divided 
off into cells (Fig. 179), 
each provided with its 
pollen and egg ; the par- 
titions in the tunnel being 
formed of the powdered 
dust formed in cutting 
the tunnel. The larvae 
feed upon the pollen. 

Honey-Bees (Apia- 
rice). — These insects (Fig. 

180) are of three kinds — queens, workers, and males. 
They live in communities of sometimes 20,000 individuals. 
The cells are formed of wax secreted by the workers, and 




Fig. 179. — Carpenter-bee, showing 
eggs, pollen-heaps, and partitions. 



142 



CRABS AND INSECTS. 



a queen is created by feeding a larva upon " royal food." 
The eggs are oblong white objects, the larvae first resem- 
bling maggots. They are fed by the workers, inclosed in 




Fig. 180. — Common honey-bee. A, drone; B, queen; C, worker; Z>, leg 
of worker, showing cavity for propolis ; £, cells for honey. 

the cell, where they spin a cocoon, become pupae, and 
finally appear as perfect bees. The leaf-cutters, humble 
(Fig. 181), and mason bees are other well-known forms. 




Fig. 181. — Humble-bee, showing its underground nest and eggs. 



Value. — In fertilizing flowers. A single honey-bee farm in San 
Diego, California, produces 150,000 pounds of wax and honey a year, 
valued at $30,000. 



INSECTS. 



143 



Note. — In New Zealand it has been found almost impossible to 
cultivate red clover, from the fact that there are no humble-bees to 
carry the pollen. It is said, however, that the flowers are changing, 
so that other insects can perform the work. 

According to Sir John Lubbock, the language of bees is expressed 
by humming. " A tired bee hums on E', and therefore vibrates its 
wings only 330 times in a second. A bee humming on A' will, on the 
other hand, increase its vibrations to 440 per second." 

Specimens for Study. — Insects, as the grasshopper, 
should be spread as in Fig. 182, and the wings and ex- 
terior parts studied. Fresh 
specimens should then be 





Fig. 182. — Grasshopper with the 
wings of one side expanded. 
_/, forward-wing; A, hinder- 
wing. 



Fig. 183. — Insect pinned. 



separated, the segments, 
joints, mouth-parts, anten- 
nae, etc., pasted on a card, 
numbered and labeled. The perfect insect should be 
preserved as in Fig. 183, pinned to a section of cork and 
glued in a covered box, a label with the name and 
locality accompanying it. Longitudinal sections of speci- 
mens hardened in alcohol should be made, the upper 
portion of the integument cut off, leaving the delicate 
hyperdermis. Lift this carefully and examine the heart, 
ganglia, etc. The various organs should be compared 
with Fig. no and drawn. In making collections, endeavor 
to have all the different stages, telling the entire story 



144 CRABS AND INSECTS. 

from the egg to the perfect insect. The eggs can be 
pasted on cards, and the larvae preserved in alcohol. 




Fig. 184. — Model of box for preserving insects collected. 

Works on Bee' for further reference. 

Langstroth " On the Honey-Bee "; " Sting of the Honey-Bee," " Pop- 
ular Science Monthly," vol. xiv, p. 635 ; " Habits of the Humble-Bees, 
and the Leaf-Cutting Bee," F. W. Putnam, " Proceedings of the Essex 
Institute," vol. iv ; " Humble-Bees of New England and their Para- 
sites," A. S. Packard, Jr., " Proceedings of the Essex Institute," vol. iv ; 
" Ants," E. R. Leland, " Popular Science Monthly," vol. vii ; Lub- 
bock's "Ants, Bees, and Wasps " ; " Agricultural Ants of Texas," H. 
C. McCook, " Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy," and "En- 
cyclopaedia Americana," vol. ii. 

Works on Insects in general for further reference. 

Packard's " Guide to the Study of Insects " ; Packard's " Half Hours 
with Insects " ; Bunneister's " Entomology " ; Lubbock's " Origin and 
Metamorphoses of Insects " ; Harris's " Insects of Massachusetts in- 
jurious to Vegetation " ; Wood's " Strange Dwellings " ; Treat's " In- 
sects injurious to Vegetation " ; the works of Professor Riley ; " Smith- 
sonian Reports " ; " Annual Reports of the State of Missouri " ; " In- 
troduction to Entomology," Kirby and Spence ; Wood's " Natural 
History," and " Homes without Hands " ; " Malay Archipelago," Wal- 
lace. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



EIGHTH BRANCH OF ANIMALS. 



SEA-SQUIRTS (Tunicata). 



General Charac- 
teristics. — Though 
the adult ascidians 
possess little out- 
ward resemblance 
to the backboned 
animals, the free- 
swimming young 
(Fig. 185, a), that 
look like tadpoles, 
have a gristly cord, 
r, with a nerve-cord, 
n v y above it like 
the notochord that 
we shall see in 
the lancelet ; con- 
sequently, they are 
believed to repre- 
sent the simplest 
phase of backboned 
life. They are bag- 
or barrel - shaped 
animals, sometimes 
growing upon stalks; 
1 




Fig. 185. — Diagram of the growth of a sea- 
squirt, orascidian. A, a, young free-swim- 
ming stage (Claveltna). a 2 , intermediate 
stage, when first settling down. B, b, full- 
grown sea-squirt, m, mouth ; <?, hollow 
brain with eye ; g, gill-slits ; //, heart ; r, 
rod of gristle in free-swimming form ; nv, 
nerve-cord in same ; /, tail in process of 
absorption in intermediate form. (After 
Haddon.) 



146 SEA-SQUIRTS. 

again, swimming free, singly, in chains upon the surface, or 
attached to the bottom. Fig. 185, B, represents a com- 
mon form of a fixed ascidian or tunicate resembling a jar 
or bottle with two mouths. 

Covering. — In the simple ascidians (Fig. 185) the body 
seems inclosed in two coats, a leathery outer one called 
the test, composed mainly of cellulose, a substance usually 
found in plants, and an inner muscular one. 

Inter?ial Structure. — The sac is provided with two 
openings, generally surrounded by short incurved tenta- 
cles ; one is the mouth, 7/1, and the other for the passage 
of rejected matter, the fertilized eggs, etc. The mouth is 
generally the upper opening, and leads into a chamber 
called the respiratory sac, g, whose walls are perforated 
with a network of ciliated openings. An orifice in the 
bottom of the sac leads to the gullet that connects with 
the stomach and intestine, the latter bending and finally 
leading to a chamber connected with the ex-current or 
atrial orifice. The liver is large and of a vivid green 
hue ; the ovaries yellow. When the tunicate is handled, 
water is ejected from both openings : hence the name 
sea-squirt. 

Circulation. — The heart (Fig. 185, /i), by the beating of 
which circulation is affected, is a straight, tubular, mus- 
cular organ, open at both ends. For a certain number of 
times in some species, the blood is thrown one way, then 
the action is reversed and it is propelled in the opposite 
direction, so flowing alternately. 

Respiration. — The network that we have seen in the 
branchial chamber is traversed by blood-vessels that here 
are brought in contact with water that is wafted along by 
the cilia ; the blood takes up oxygen, and so is purified. 
As food is also brought in with the water, the sea-squirt 
breathes and obtains food by the same action.* 

* Compare this with the account of the oyster, on page 52. 



SEA-SQUIRTS. 147 

Ncrvoits System. — In the simplest forms, the nervous 
system consists of a simple cord ganglion, between the two 
body-openings. 

Development. — They multiply by eggs and by budding, 
the young in some cases assuming at first a free-swimming 
tadpole form (Fig. 185, a), finally becoming attached, a 2 , 
the tail / absorbing, and the animal assuming the adult 
form B. 

Pyrosoma. — The pyrosoma (Fig. 186), or fire-body, is 
a gigantic compound ascidian, sometimes five feet long, 
twelve inches across, with walls three inches thick. It is 
a colony of ascidians forming a cylindrical, barrel-shaped 




Fig. 186. — Pyrosoma gigas, a luminous compound ascidian. 

object open at one end. Here the circulation of water 
aids in locomotion. The mouths, or the inhalent openings, 
are upon the outside of the pyrosoma, and the exhalent 
upon the inside. Each individual of the colony is con- 
tinually engaged in drawing in water, sifting out the parti- 
cles of food, and ejecting it from the interior opening, all 
these little currents finding their way out of the single 
large opening, the combined volume forcing the entire 
colony along. 

Note. — The pyrosoma is one of the most wonderful animals of the 
sea in its illuminating properties. In the southern seas they resemble 
bodies heated to a white heat, illuminating the greater depths, so that 
the forms of sharks, porpoises, and other larger animals are seen dis- 
tinctly far below ; and when at the surface light up the sails, masts, and 



1 48 SEA-SQUIRTS. 

rigging of vessels, as if by magic. Bebra, the naturalist, wrote a de- 
scription of one in his cabin by its own light, and read by their phos- 
phorescence from his cabin- window. Professor Moseley wrote his 
name upon one with his finger as it lay upon deck ; each letter 
seemed to ignite, increasing in brilliancy, spreading over the entire 
animal until it seemed at a white heat. They are found in nearly all 
the southern seas, and are important factors in the illumination of 
the submarine world. 

Salpas. — These are minute pelagic, free-swimming as- 
cidians. There are solitary and chain Salpa ; the former 
(Fig. 187) are barrel-shaped, even the hoops being repre- 




Fig. 187. — Doh'olum, an ascidian allied to the salpa. a, nerve ; d, mouth ; 
£■, oesophagus ; z, stomach ; /, intestine ; r, heart ; 1 1, muscles. 

sented by circular bands or muscles. In both, the open- 
ings are at each end, and locomotion is produced by a 
regular contraction and expansion of the mantle. The 
salpa in its development affords another example of alter- 
nate generations. The solitary asexual salpa, by bud- 
ding, produces a family of chained salpae ; these in turn 
produce, not buds, but fertilized eggs, that, after pass- 
ing through several changes, assume the solitary asexual 
salpa form. 

Note. — They are brilliantly luminous, the chains stretching away 
for great distances, resembling luminous snakes winding their way over 
the sea. Their light in the darkest night rivals that of the moon upon 
the water. 



SEA-SQUIRTS. 



1 49 



Appendiculariae. — These (Fig. 188) are the simplest 
forms of the class, minute pelagic creatures with tadpole- 
like tails. 




Fig. 188. — Appendicularia flabellum. I. The entire animal, with the 
"tail" in its ordinary position, or turned forward. II. Side view of the 
body, with the "tail" forcibly bent backward. A, the body; B, the 
tail ; a, oral aperture ; b, the pharynx ; c, an atrial opening ; if, the cor- 
responding stigma, with its cilia ; f, rectum ; g, oesophagus ; //, t\ stom- 
ach ; /, urochord ; in, cellular patch at the side of the oral end of the 
body ; p, ganglion ; q, ciliated sac ; r, ear ; s, posterior nerve with its 
ganglia, t; en, endoderm ; ec, ectoderm. (After Huxley.) 



Works on Tunicates for further reference. 

" Ascidians of the Coast of New England," A. E. Verrill, in " Ameri- 
can Journal of Science," vol. i, 1871 ; " Structure and Affinities of the 
Sea-Squirts (Tunicata)," J. C. Galton, " Popular Science Review," July, 
1868 ; " Invertebrata of Vineyard Sound," Verrill ; " Development 
of Salpa," Brooks, " Bulletin of Comparative Zoology," Cambridge, 
1876. 



CHAPTER IX. 



NINTH BRANCH OF ANIMALS. 



BACKBONED ANIMALS {Vertebrata). 

General Characteristics. — The Vertebrates are distin- 
guished by the possession of a backbone, or vertebra, but 

the fundamental dis- 
tinction between them 
and the preceding forms 
lies in the fact that the 
body is divided into two 
tubes (Fig. 189) — the 
upper, C S, containing 
the nervous cord, and 
the lower the heart, di- 
gestive organs, etc. The 
eyes, ears, and nostrils 
are two in number, and 
are placed in the same 
relative position in all. 
The eyes have movable 
lids ; the mouth opens 
transversely ; the lower 
jaw is on the under part 
of the head, and moves 
up and down, instead of opening sidewise, as in the insects 
and crustaceans. The jaws are armed with teeth. The 
blood, except in the lancelet, is red. 




Fig. 189. — A vertebra and a pair of ribs, 
from a cat. C S, upper cavity, con- 
taining cerebro-spinal cord ; and low- 
er, containing: lunsrs, etc. 



LEPTOCARDII. 151 

Skeleton. — The skeleton, that in the preceding forms 
has been upon the outside, is now internal. In the sharks, 
sturgeons, etc., it is soft, and composed of cartilage, while 
in others it is of bone. The backbone is composed of a 
row of bones, called vertebras, that extend from the head 
to the tail, known collectively as the vertebral column. 
In the upper portion of each vertebra, except those in the 
tail, will be found a hole or arch (Fig. 189, C S), through 
which extends a long, white cord, connected with the brain, 
called the cerebro-spinal cord, that is thus protected from 
injury. The various bones of the head, that are extensions 
of the backbone, form a box or covering for the brain, 
known as the cranium or skull. The limbs never exceed 
two pairs, and are fundamentally the same in all Verte- 
brates, merely being adapted to the habits of the animal 
in flying, leaping, swimming, digging, clinging, or walking. 
These are features that characterize all Vertebrates, except 
the lowest forms. The peculiarities of structure that dis- 
tinguish the different divisions will be treated under the 
following heads, that represent the different classes of the 
backboned animals : 1. The lancelet ; 2. The lamprey; 3. 
The true fishes ; 4. Amphibians ; 5. Reptiles ; 6. Birds ; 
and 7. Mammals. 

Class I. — LEPTOCARDII. 

The Lancelet {Amphioxus). — This worm-like creature 
(Fig. 190) is the lowest animal in which we find a notochord 
in the adult. The body is lance-shaped, having no skele- 
ton, brain, cranium, or paired fins ; yet it has a backbone, 
represented by a cartilaginous string, called the notochord 
(Fig. 190, r\ with a nerve-cord, 11 v, over it. The heart 
is long and simple, and the blood colorless. The mouth, 
m, is oval, surrounded by delicate tentacles ; and the eyes 
are mere specks, e. The young pass through a metamor- 
phosis, being at first oval, ciliated bodies ; later, resem- 



152 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



bling a larval ascidian. They breathe by taking in water 
at the mouth, m, that passes through the gill-slits, g, oxy- 
genating the blood, then passing out through an opening, 




Fig. 190. — The lancelet. m, mouth ; e, eye-spot ; f, fin ; r, rod or noto- 
chord, the first faint indication of a backbone ; n v, nerve-cord ; g, 
gills ; //, hole out of which water passes from the gills ; v, vent for refuse 
of food. 



h. Compare this with the respiration of ascidians (page 
146). The common lancelet lives in the sand in the 
shallow water of our coast, from Virginia to southern 
Florida. 

An Australian lancelet has a high dorsal fin, and about 
Zamboanga one is found living in a sea-cucumber (Scabra). 



Class II. — Pouch-Gilled Vertebrates {Marsipo- 
branchii). 

General Characteristics. — The animals of this class are 
worm-like in appearance. They have no jaws, the mouth 
being adapted for sucking. The respiratory organs (Fig. 
191) are pouch-like cells or cavities, which open externally 
by seven small holes in the lamprey, and internally con- 
nect with the mouth and a cavity beneath the oesophagus. 
The nasal aperture that, in the higher Vertebrates, is 
paired, is here single, in the hag connecting with a sac 
that leads to the mouth ; but in the lamprey there is no 
such connection. 

Hag {Myxine). — The hag is about a foot in length. 
The eyes are minute and under the skin. They are gen- 



POUCH-GILLED VERTEBRATES. 



153 



erally found in deep water, where they are parasitic on 
various fishes. The teeth are represented by two comb- 
like rows on the tongue. There is also a single median 
or middle tooth (Fig. 191, a). They secrete an enormous 
quantity of slime, and a single hag has so filled four cubic 
feet of water that the mass could be lifted out with a 
stick, forming, according to Couch, a continuous sheet. 
The eggs are large, and covered with horny cases, having 
short filaments that wind about sea-weed. 




Fig. 191. — Organs of respiration in the Myxine. a, single hooked tooth ; 
b b b b, double rows of lingual teeth ; c, branchial cells ; d d d d, tentac* 
ula ; e, mucous glands. 

Lamprey {Petromyzon). — The lamprey eel (Fig. 192) 
lives in both salt and fresh water, and attains a length of 
three feet. When young they are blind and toothless, and 
were long considered separate animals (Ammoccetes), (Fig. 
192). The adults have sunken eyes, and teeth on the car- 
tilage supporting the lips. The mouth is a sucker, the 
tongue acting as a piston, and during the breeding-season 
they use it to advantage in building their nests. They 
follow the shad up rivers in the spring, deposit their eggs, 
and return to the ocean in the autumn. They are eaten 
in England. 

Note. — The nests are formed of piles of rocks weighing several 
pounds, which are brought from up-stream by successively lifting them 
from the bottom, allowing the tide to carry them along. Some of the 
nests are three feet high and four in circumference, and in some cases 
the eggs are deposited in mere hollows in the sand. The young remain 
in their castles until able to protect themselves, and do not assume the 



154 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



parent form for three years. For an illustrated account of nest-building 
fishes see the article on the subject by the author in " Harper's Month- 
ly," Christmas number, 1883. 




Fig. 192. — Figure of a full-grown lamprey and of the young lamprey, for- 
merly called A}nmocoetes, showing the seven holes through which it takes 
in water to breathe. 



Class III. — The True Fishes {Pisces). 

Gericral Characteristics. — Aquatic Vertebrates with a 
cartilaginous skeleton, as in the shark, or a bony one, as 
in the perch ; as a rule, scaled, and breathing by means 
of gills ; limbs represented by fins. 

Skeleton. — At first glance, the skeleton of a bony fish 
(Fig. 193) seems to have two backbones ; the lower, how- 
ever, is the vertebra, that extends from the head to the 
tail. The upper series, f and c, are median or middle fins, 
supported by interspinous bones. The backbone is com- 
posed of sometimes two hundred vertebrae in bony fishes. 



THE TRUE FISHES. 1 55 

and over three hundred and fifty in cartilaginous ones, 
that in the former are hollow upon each side, the inclosure 
so formed containing a glutinous substance. The verte- 
brae are all connected at their edges by ligaments, that 
allow more or less lateral motion. To the central or ab- 
dominal portion of the backbone the ribs are attached, 
their lower ends hanging free in the muscles. The head 




I 

Fig. 193. — Skeleton of the perch (Perca fluviatilis). Shows the jointed na- 
ture of the vertebral column, and the facilities afforded for lateral motion, 
particularly in the tail (</), dorsal (e,f), ventral (&, c), and pectoral {a) 
fins, which are principally engaged in swimming. 

is made up of a complicated arrangement of bones ; the 
jaws armed with many rows of teeth, in some cases being 
movable. The limbs or fins are formed of bony or carti- 
laginous rays ; those in pairs corresponding to the limbs 
of man. Thus, the pectoral fins (Fig. 193, a) correspond 
to the arms. A pectoral arch, scapula, clavicle, and cora- 
coid bones are found, and generally the ulna, radius, and 
carpus. The lower portion of the fish is termed ventral, 
and the ventral fins (Fig. 193, b) that are attached to 
the pelvic arch represent the hind-limbs, though the bones 
of these limbs are not present. The single fin (Fig. 
193, e) is a lower middle fin, that is supported by inter- 
spinous bones, that in turn are connected with the verte- 
bra by ligaments. The tail or caudal fin (Fig. 193, d) 
is formed of a number of spreading rays, and is of two 



i 5 6 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



distinct types : heterocercal, in which the lobes are un- 
equal, as in the shark (Fig. 198), and homocercal, where 
they are equal, as in the perch (Fig. 193). 

Digestion. — The teeth that rudely prepare the food 
for digestion are loosely attached to the bones of tha 




Fig. 194. — Internal structure of the minnow, ribs removed, and the living 
fish. A, «, nose-pit; e, eye-nerve; ea, ear-nerve ; g, gills; //, heart ; t, 
food-tube ; j-, stomach ; k, kidney ; v, vent ; d a, dorsal artery ; a, air- 
bladder ; £, backbone ; n v, nerve-cord or spinal cord. B, «, nose ; gc, 
gill-cover ; a/, arm-fin ; //, leg-fins ; s /, single fins ; m j, mucous 
scales. 

mouth, and even the tongue, not being confined to the 
jaws alone. Food passes into the food-tube (Fig. 194, /), 
and thence into the stomach, s, the rejected portions being 
expelled at v. The liver is generally large. The position 
of the kidneys is shown in Fig. 194, k. 

Circulation. — The heart (Fig. 194,/*), as a rule, consists 



THE TRUE FISHES. 



57 



of two chambers — an auricle and ventricle. The former 
receives the impure blood and pumps it into the latter. 
From here it is sent into a chamber or arterial bulb that 
divides into five pairs of branches, one leading into each 
gill. The blood enters the gills, is purified, then by the 
branchial veins passes into the dorsal artery (Fig. 194, da), 
so finding its way slowly over the body and back to the 
auricle. So slowly is this circulation accomplished that 
the blood rarely attains a temperature above that of the 
surrounding water.* Hence the fishes are said to be cold- 
blooded. 

Respiration. — Lifting up the gill-cover (Fig. 194, B, g c). 
we see the gills, A, g, by which the bony fishes breathe. 
They are blood-red, membranous leaflets, supported by 
cartilaginous arches separated by sHts, the entire arrange- 
ment placed on each side of the head in what are called 
branchial chambers. Water is taken in at the mouth, 
passes between the arches and over the gills, supplying 
oxygen to the blood that has been pumped there by the 
heart for the purpose, passing out again under the gill- 
cover (Fig. 194, B, g c), so that there is a continuous cur- 
rent of water flowing in at the mouth and out at the gills. 
Most fishes have an air-bladder (Fig. 194, A, a) that con- 
tains gases, principally nitrogen, that enable them to main- 
tain a certain specific gravity. In some fishes it has the 
attribute of a lung. 

Nervous System, etc. — The nervous system of fishes con- 
sists of a small brain and spinal cord (Fig. 194, A, nv), that 
throws off delicate threads to the various parts, the fins, 
the eye, A, e, the ear, A, ee, and the nose-pit, n. The na- 
sal organs, except in the lung fishes and myxinoids, do not 
connect with the mouth. They are represented by cov- 
ered pits lined with nerves. Water laden with odors flows 

* In the active fishes (Sco??ibridce) the respiratory process is so ener- 
getic that the temperature of the blood is often higher than that of the 
surrounding medium. 



158 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 




in, and the news is telegraphed to the brain, just as the 
impression of an object seen is carried by the optic nerve 
e. The ears, A, ea, are little cavities placed on each side 

of the head, containing a 
liquid, in which float two 
otoliths, or ear-stones. 

Covering. — Fishes are 
covered with scales (Fig. 
195), that overlap each 
other like shingles on a 
roof, and grow, totally un- 
like those of reptiles, out 
of little pockets in the skin, 
being kept soft and slimy 
by a secretion under them, 
but principally from that 
which exudes from about the mucous scales (Fig. 194, 
B, m s) . 

DevelopTtient. — Most fishes deposit eggs or roe. Some 
are ovoviviparous, while others, as the Zoarces, Ditrema, 
etc., are viviparous, or produce their young alive. 

Economic Value. — As nearly all fishes are valuable as food, refer- 
ence to their economic value has not been given in every case. The 
reports of the United States Fish Commission show the value of this 
class of vertebrates to man. Artificial fish-hatching establishments have 
been organized in nearly all the States. American fish-eggs are sent 
to Europe, and others received in return, and the arrangements for the 
prevention of the depletion of fisheries are becoming more complete 
every year. 



Fig. 195. — Scale of a flounder, highly 
magnified, a, natural size. 



Sub-Class I. Strap-gilled Fishes {Elasmobranchii). 

General Characteristics. — In this class, we first meet 
Vertebrates having paired fins and a genuine lower jaw. 
The skeleton is made up of cartilage ; the ribs are small 
and often rudimentary. The skull is a simple cartilagi- 
nous box, and the jaws, and in fact all the parts, are 



THE TRUE FISHES. 



159 



easily bent or cut with a knife. The bones that protect 
the gill-openings in bony fishes are wanting, the gills being 
mere slits,* from five to seven pairs, with intervening 
straps. The lobes of the tail are generally unequal. 




Fig. 196. 



•A, egg of a shark, showing the anchor filaments, 
shark, showing the external gills (dr). 



B, embryo 



Order I. Plagiostomi. Nurse-Sharks (Scymm'da). 

— The nurse or sleeper is a sluggish shark found upon the 
eastern coast of North America, occasionally attaining a 
length of twenty feet. A nurse-shark of southern Florida 
is extremely dark in color. The latter frequent the sandy 
shoals in droves, and can always be seen asleep or quiet 
upon the bottom. 

Note. — Dr. Bennett discovered in Australian seas a small shark 
(Sqtialus fulgcns), probably allied to this family, that was luminous 

* In embryo sharks (Fig. 196, B) the gills are external, as in the 
tadpole, etc. 



160 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

over its entire surface except a girdle about the throat ; it emitted a 
light of great brilliancy. 

Dog-Fishes {Spinacidce) — The Squalus Americanus 
is a common American variety. They have a sharp spine 
in front of each dorsal fin, capable of inflicting a danger- 
ous wound. The young are born alive. 

Note. — In August, 18S3, the effect of their arrival upon the Maine 
coast was disastrous to many fishermen. Their vast numbers com- 
pletely destroyed the fishing. They attacked oars, even biting at the 
sails when hanging over, and several cases are known where in former 
years they attacked swimmers and persons who had fallen overboard. 
The fishermen gave up cod- and hake-fishing, and with wire-hooked 
trawls captured thousands of the dog-fish, selling their livers to be 
made into oil, while the bodies were carted upon farms and used as 
guano. 



Fig. 197. — Hammer-headed shark. 



Hammer-Head Shark (Sphymidce) — The sharks of 
this family (Fig. 197) have the head in the shape of a 
hammer, the eyes being placed at the ends of the curious 
prolongations. They attain a length of twelve feet, and 



THE TRUE FISHES. 161 

are found on both sides of the Atlantic, and from Brazil 
to Cape Cod. They are very ferocious. Allied is the 
thresher shark 
(Fig. 198). The ^^gmm* 

weapon when ^» 

SWUng about by FlG - ^.-Thresher shark. 

the powerful 

fish. They attain a length of twenty feet. 

Man-Eater Shark (Lamnidce).— The great Carcha- 
rodon has been known to attack boats. Their enormous 
mouths contain six or eight rows of serrated teeth. They 
have a wide geographical range, are mainly pelagic, living 
in the open sea. One species (C. gangeticus) lives in an in- 
closed lake in the Feejee Islands, breeding above the falls. 
It has also been found at Bagdad, three hundred and fifty 
miles from salt water. A shark is also found in Lake 
Nicaragua. The largest shark of this family ever caught 
was thirty-six and a half feet long, from Australian waters. 

Note. — In repeated observations of these and allied sharks attack- 
ing objects on the surface and on the bottom, on the outer Florida reef, 
in no case did they turn on their backs. In attacking a cow they ran 
their snouts out of the water, and bit as do ordinary fishes, tearing and 
shaking the body like a dog. One, caught after a struggle of two hours, 
during which it towed the boat a long distance, contained among other 
curiosities the hoofs of an ox, a mass of old rope, a tin can, and other 
material obtained near a slaughter-house. They never attacked human 
beings in this locality, though bathing and swimming from key to key 
was often indulged in, where twelve and fourteen foot sharks were 
observed only a few moments before. 

Basking Shark (Cetorhinidcz). — Bone-shark, sail-fish, 
and many other titles are applied to these sharks, that are 
the largest of all fishes. One, captured by the schooner 



1 62 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 




THE TRUE FISHES. 1 63 

Virgin, off Block Island, was about seventy feet in length. 
They are harmless, living upon small pelagic animals that 
are strained into the throat through a series of hard, elastic, 
whalebone-like fringes, that are arranged comb-like along 
the large gill-openings. The teeth are small and compara- 
tively useless. The Rhinodon (Fig. 199) is a similar form 
of East African waters, and attains a length of sixty or 
seventy feet. The mouth opens on a level with the snout. 
When struck, they have been known to carry large boats 
beneath the surface. 

Value of Sharks. — They are all scavengers. The skin of dog- 
fish and others is used as leather and shagreen. The oil of nearly all 
the species is valuable, and the bodies as guano. The teeth of sharks 
are used as weapons by the Pacific islanders. In China the shark-fin 
trade is an important one, they being used as food. 

Saw-Fishes (Pristidce). — These remarkable fishes 
(Fig. 200) attain a length of fifteen feet, and are common 
on the North American coast from Cape Cod southward. 




Fig. 200. — Saw-fish. 

The snout is prolonged into a sword, the edges being 
armed with sharp, bony teeth. A species of saw-fish lives 
in a fresh-water lake in the Philippine Islands. The saw 
is used as a weapon by some tribes. They are vivipa- 
rous. 

Skates {Raiaidce). — These fishes are all notable for 
the development of the side or pectoral fins that in some 
species appear like wings. Their teeth are grinding plates, 
adapted for crushing mollusks and crabs. Their eggs are 
deposited in a dark, rectangular, parchment-like case, hav- 



164 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



ing four filaments that twine about the sea-weed, prevent- 
ing them from washing ashore. 

Torpedoes (Torpedimdci). — The fishes of this family 
are electricians, and are common on the New England 

coast. The electric ap- 
paratus (Fig. 201) is situ- 
ated between the head 
and the bases of the pec- 
toral fins, and is composed 
of numerous hexagonal 
membranous tubes placed 
side by side at right an- 
gles with the surface of 
the body, and so close to 
it that their ends are 
often visible above and 
below. The cells contain 
mucus, and are traversed 
by nerves that proceed 
from the eighth pair. So 
powerful is this battery 
that fishermen have been 
knocked over as if with 
an axe, the shocks also 
passing up the harpoon- 
rope, or the knife used in 
cutting them. Allied are 
sting-rays (Trygon), cow- 
nosed rays, etc. The 
great devil - fish (Fig. 
202), that has curious prolongations or claspers at 
the head, attains a width of twenty-seven feet. They 
have been known to tow large vessels against the wind 
for long distances by fouling the anchor. The Japanese 
use the skeletons of rays in the imitation of tortoise- 
shell. 




Fig. 201. — The torpedo, with its elec- 
trical apparatus displayed, d, bran- 
chiae ; c, brain ; e, electric organ ; 
g, cranium ; m e, spinal cord ; n, 
nerves to the pectoral fins ; n p, 
nerves going to the electric organ ; 
o, eye. 



THE TRUE FISHES. 



165 




Fig. 202. — Devil-fish (Cephalopterus diabolus). 

Order II. Holocephali. — The Chimczra (Fig. 203) is 
a northern representative of this group, while the curious 
Callorhynchus is found in Antarctic regions. The gill- 
openings are protected by a membranous covering, sug- 
gesting the gill-covers of bony fishes. The teeth are curi- 
ously arranged, there being four in the upper and only two 




Fig. 203. — The Chimcera. 

in the lower jaw. The air-bladder is absent. The male 
Chimaera has a curious, comb-like, cartilaginous appendage 
armed with hooklets on the top of the head, that is either 
erect or hidden in a hook-armed groove. 



1 66 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



Note. — The eggs of the Chimcera are deposited in thick, leathery- 
cases, and those of Callorhynchus are remarkable for their mimicry or 
protective resemblance, resembling the leaf of the fucus or sea-weed to 
which they are attached. They form a long, depressed ellipse, with a 
plicated and fringed margin, and, swaying in the current, their true 
nature would never be suspected. 

Sub-Class II. Bright-scaled Fishes {Ganoidei). 

General Characteristics. — The Ganoids have hard, glis- 
tening scales, cartilaginous or ossified skeletons, and one 
pair of gill-openings, protected by opercular bones. 





Fig. 204.— Sharp-nosed sturgeon (A. oxyrhynchus). 

Order I. Chondroganoidei. The Sturgeons (Aci- 
penseridce). — The sturgeons (Fig. 204) have cartilaginous 
skeletons, the skin being armed with bony bucklers or 
plates, arranged in longitudinal rows. The mouth is 
toothless and under the snout, 
and is adapted for sucking in 
soft food (Fig. 205). The sharp- 
nosed sturgeon attains a length 
of eight feet. It breeds, as do 
the entire family, in fresh water, 
the female depositing millions of 
eggs. The shovel -nosed stur- 
geon and the curious spoonbill 
{Polyodon folium) are found in 
the Mississippi. Glue, cement, court-plaster, isinglass, 
etc., are made from the air-bladders of sturgeons. 

Note. — The Acipenser huso attains a length of twenty-five feet. 
The fisheries at Ruibinsk, on the Volga, Russia, give employment, ac- 
cording to Duncan, to one hundred thousand persons, and the fish have 



Fig. 205. — The sturgeon's 
head seen from below, 
showing the tube - like 
mouth and the four bar- 
bels or feelers. 



THE TRUE FISHES. 1 67 

been seen so packing a river three hundred and sixty feet wide and 
twenty-nine feet deep, that the backs of the upper ones were out of 
the water. 

Order II. Lung-Fishes {Dipnoi). — The lung-fishes 
are eel-shaped, and covered with large scales. Some, as 
the Lepidosiren, have two perfect lungs, as well as gills. 
When left dry in pools, they form cases in the mud, which 
they line with a mucus, and lie dormant until the return of 
the water. The Ceradotus of Australia (Fig. 206), discov- 




Fig. 206. — The Ceradotus of Queensland, Australia, an air-breathing and 
water-breathing mud-fish of the ancient type, with paddle-fins. 

ered in 1870, attains a length of six feet. When under 
water the heart pumps the blood to the gills, but when 
they are deprived of it the gases from the air-chamber are 
expelled with a loud noise, and fresh air taken in, the 
blood being now carried the other way, or toward the 
chambered, lung-like air-bladder, to become freshened. 

Note. — The Protopterits, a lung-fish of Africa, has plume-like fins, 
and is also noted for its burrowing habits, forming burrows a foot from 
the surface. One, sent to England in its earthen case, came to life 
months after, when soaked in water. Some remain in their dry nests 
for several seasons. Many of the family have the faculty of reproduc- 
ing lost fleshy parts of their fins, etc. 

Order III. Branchioganoidei. — This order is repre- 
sented by the Polypterus of the Nile. The dorsal fin is 
broken up into numerous points, each being supported by 



1 68 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 




Fig. 207. — Young of the 
Nile Polypterus, show- 
ing external gills, dr. 



a ray and spine (Fig. 207). The 
young have external gills (Fig. 
207, br). 

Order IV. Garpikes [Byoga- 
noidei). — The garpikes (Fig. 208) 
have beak-like jaws with sharp 
teeth ; the scales are large and re- 
semble white enameled plates. The air-bladder is lung- 
like, and the fishes are often seen at the surface inhaling 
air. They occur in the Western and Southern rivers and 
Great Lakes. The eggs are hatched the last of May. 
The scales are used as arrow-tips by some Indians. 




Fig. 208. — Garpike {Lepidosteus osseus). 



Sub-Class III. Bony Fishes (Te/eostei). 

General Characteristics. — In these fishes (Figs. 193, 
194) bone takes the place of cartilage. The skull is com- 
posed of many bones ; the optic nerves cross each other ; 
the gills generally number four pairs, and have several 
opercular or protective bones. 

Eels (Afiodes). — The eels are without ventral fins. 
The Anguilla is common in the United States, living in 
fresh-water streams, but depositing its eggs, often 8,000,- 
000 to a single fish, in the ocean, the young ascending the 
rivers. The sexes are difficult to distinguish ; the females 
have the highest dorsal fin, smaller eyes, and a lighter color 
than the males, while the snout is generally broader at the 
tip than in the male. The conger-eel attains a large size, 
and ranges from Newfoundland to the West Indies. In 



THE TRUE FISHES. 1 69 

Southern waters the ferocious and snake-like Murtzna is 
found, attaining a length of three feet. 

Note. — In a pond near Wells, on the Maine coast, the eels inva- 
riably go down into salt water at night, and, as the stream is narrow, 
the sight is remarkable, thousands filling the channel, leaving the water 
when alarmed and passing over the dry rocks to the ocean. The sound, 
a single note, frequently uttered by the eel, is, according to Abbott, 
more distinctly musical than those made by other fishes, and has a 
metallic resonance. 

Order III. Thread-jawed Fishes (Nematognathi). 
Cat-Fishes (Siluridce). — The cat-fishes may be recog- 
nized by the curious barbels or threads that hang from 
their jaws. They have no scales, the skin being in some 
species protected by bony plates. Some are marine, but 
the majority live in fresh water. A blind cat-fish (Gronias) 
inhabits a subterranean stream in Pennsylvania. The 
Anus, of South America, carries its eggs in its mouth, and 
even the young fish. In a species of Arius, in Panama, 
the mother first carries them about in a fold of the skin, 
and later the male receives them in its capacious mouth. 
The female Aspredo carries its eggs about attached to dang- 
ling capsules, that cover the fins and ventral surface of the 
body, disappearing after the breeding season. The com- 




FiG. 209. — An electric cat-fish (Malapterus electricus). 

mon cat-fish carefully guards its young, while the South 
American Doras and Callichthys build nests of leaves in 
which the young are placed. These fishes also leave ponds 

8 



170 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



y 



that dry up, and crawl overland (see frontispiece) in great 
numbers in search of water, during this time breathing air 
directly. The Arges are almost blind forms, living in sub- 
terranean streams. A cat-fish from the Nile, Malapterus 
tlectricus (Fig. 209), is electric, the cells forming a layer 
over the entire body except the head and fins. The South 
American Lau-Lau, is the largest of the family, and pro- 
tects its young in its mouth. The Corbetis fossilis (Fig. 2 10) 




Fig. 210. — Cojrbetis fossilis. It swallows air-bubbles which pass through the 
intestine, where the mucous membrane takes up the oxygen for respiration. 



breathes air directly as well as taking it from the water. 

The fourth order of fishes, Scyp/iop/wri, is represented by 

the Nile Gymnarchus. 

Order V. Perfect-headed Fishes (Teleocephali). — 

General Characteristics. — This order embraces most of our 

common fishes. 
The skeleton is 
bony, and the 
name applies 
to the diversity 
and perfection 
of the bones of 
the head. 

Gymnotus. 
— The Gymno- 
tus electricus 
(Fig. 211) is 

one of the lowest of the Teleosts. The batteries are 

four in number, and situated, in pairs, on each side of 

the body, occupying together nearly all the lower portion. 




Fig. 211. — Electric eel {Gymnotus electricus). 



THE TRUE FISHES. 



171 



Carps (Cyprinidce) . — The carps comprise many spe- 
cies, and abound in nearly all streams throughout the 
Old World and North America. They have weak, tooth- 
less jaws. The 
stone-toters (Ex- 
og/ossum) build 
nests by carrying 
stones, which they 
pile in heaps. The 
dace (Fig. 212), 
common minnows, 
and shiners, are 
all related. Fig. 212. — Black-nosed dace. 




Note. — The dace (Rhinichthys atronasus) is one of the most inter- 
esting of the nest-building fishes. During the breeding-season males 
and females clear away a spot, perhaps under the water-lilies, and in 
the oval depression the eggs are deposited, the pair covering them with 
a layer of stones ; then another layer of eggs is deposited, and another 
of stones, until a mound of eight or ten inches in height is the result, 
and here the young are hatched. 

Blind, Cave-Fishes (Amblyopidtz). — These comprise 
three genera and four species of ghostly, sightless fishes 
(Fig. 213) living in the limestone caves of the Middle and 




Fig. 213. — Blind-fish (Amd/yopsz's) , Mammoth Cave. 



Southern States. Though blind, they are supplied with 
sense-organs so delicate that they are enabled to capture 
fishes with eyes that have strayed into their domain. 



172 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



Wyandotte and Mammoth Caves are noted localities for 
them. The Amblyopsis is viviparous. ^ ^^maJ^is 4^4 Cm^s 

Herring-Pikes (Elopidce). — This family includes the 
tarpon (Megalops thrissoides) and the big-eyed herring. The 
former attains a length of over eight feet, and is the most 
beautiful of all fishes, ranging from Cape Cod to Florida. 
An allied form, the Stydis or Piraruda, of South America, \ 
attains a length of fifteen feet, and a Wight of four hun- 
dred pounds. They have skeletons of most massive build. 
The young, according to Schomburgh, enter the mother's 
mouth in time of danger. Allied are the herrings {Clupei- 
dce), shad, menhaden, and the gizzard-shad. They are 
nearly all important food-fishes. Menhaden oil and guano 
are valued. The scales of the tarpon are used in orna- 
mental work. 

Salmon (Salmonidd). — Salmon are found in Europe 
and America, in the latter country from the polar regions 
to Cape Cod. They live in both fresh and salt water. In 
the breeding-season they ascend the rivers, leaping the 
falls with great skill, and at this time are often caught. 
The eggs are about the size of a pea, and are deposited 
in depressions or nests. When very young, they are 

banded and known as 
parr (Fig. 214). At a 
year old they are sil- 
very, and previous to 
descending the rivers 
Fig. 214.— Young salmon {parr). are known as Stnolt. 

When they return from 
their first visit to the sea they are called grilse, only after 
their second return being known as salmon. Allied is the 
common trout, that lives permanently in fresh water, 
breeding in the autumn and early winter. 

Note. — Salmon are found in the Yukon River, Alaska, 3,000 miles 
from the sea. In 1882 the Columbia River salmon-fisheries alone real- 
ized in first hands $2,782,000, giving employment to 7,000 persons. 




THE TRUE FISHES. 1 73 

Lamp-Fishes {Stomiatidce) . — In these and allied fishes 
the skin is naked, or the scales extremely minute, and 
nearly all have organs that look like pearl or glass buttons 
imbedded in the skin. According to Leydig, they are of 
three kinds : first, eye-like organs ; second, pearly, glass- 
like organs ; and, third, luminous organs. According to 
different authors, they are eyes, electric or light-giving 
organs. Gunther considers them all luminous, and that 
their function is to light the dark recesses of the submarine 
world. 

In the Stomias the pearly spots are along the ventral surface, a 
veritable row of glowing lights. Allied to the Stomias is -the lamp- 
fish {Scopelus) ; upon its head is a soft prominence that glows like a 
head-light. Willemoes-Suhrn says, " One of them hung in the net 
like a shining star." Other phosphores- 
cent spots are scattered along the lower 
surface of Scopelus Humboldti and Be- 
noitii (Fig. 216). Another allied form 
is the Bombay duck or Harpodon (Fig. 
216), that is luminous over its entire sur- 
face. The eyes of Ipnops are adapted 
for receiving and perhaps emitting phos- 
phorescent light, and a curious phos- 
phorescent organ is found upon the head. Fig. 215. — Luminous org^n 
Several species of the genus Echiostoma from side of Scopelus 

live in Australian seas at a depth of two (j" l S- 2l6 > 8 )> 

and a half miles. They are black, with 

long, fringed barbels, and below the eyes and in other places are 
several luminous spots. The Bathyophis ferox lives at a depth of 
nearly three miles, the greatest depth attained by any fish. It has 
long barbels or feelers, and rows of gleaming lights on its various 
parts. Allied is the Chauliodus (Fig. 216, 1). The tips of the fins 
are luminous, while a row of luminous spots extends the entire length 
of the body. The little fishes Argyropelecus (Fig. 217) and Ster- 
noptyx are found in the Mediterranean. The body is extremely deep, 
rising suddenly and narrowing off to the tail. The luminous spots are 
in groups from the head to the tail. Perhaps allied to this group is a 
strange fish (Fig. 218) about twenty inches in length, with a pouch-like 
mouth and no fins, found in water over a mile deep in the Mediter- 
ranean, and also dredged off the American coast. It differs from all 




174 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 




THE TRUE FISHES. 



175 



other known bony fishes in having six pairs of internal branchial clefts, 
and consequently five pairs of gills. It has no swimming-bladder. 




Fig. 217. — Argyropelecus Jiemigymnus, twice natural size, snowing groups 
of luminous organs. 




Fig. 218. — The Pelican fish {Eurypharynx pelecanoides). 



176 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

Pikes (Esocidce). — The pikes (Fig. 219) have long, 
depressed snouts, and with a single exception (Esox lucius) 
belong to the United States. The Mitskallonge of the 
Great Lakes attains a length of four feet. 




Fig. 219.— Pike (Esox). 

Note. — All the family are voracious, often attacking ducks and even 
larger birds. They have been known to live over a hundred years. 
The pickerel is common in the various rivers and lakes of North 
America. A pike has been observed by an English naturalist to leap 
a foot out of water, and take a young bird from an overhanging limb. 

Flying-Fishes (Exoccetus) . — The flying-fishes range 
from Cape Cod to Florida, and in many seas. The pec- 
toral fins are developed in a remarkable manner, so that 
they resemble wings. When the fish rises from the sea, 
the tail is worked vigorously, the wing-like pectorals vi- 
brate rapidly, and once clear of the water the fish soars 
away, with or without the movement of the fins, either in 
a straight line, or curving by a motion of the tail, often 
clearing a distance of a quarter of a mile (Fig. 223). 

Gar-Fishes (Belonidce). — The gar-fishes have long, 
slender bodies, the jaws narrow, pointed, and armed with 
extremely sharp teeth. They almost invariably lie at the 
surface. They are green above and silvery beneath. 

Note. — They attain a length of two feet and over. In the Pacific 
they are of large size, and when alarmed leap away in a series of bounds 
out of water, and very often, according to Moseley, occasion the death 
of natives wading about by accidentally striking them, the bill piercing 
the flesh like an arrow. The Hetnirhamphus has only the lower jaw 
elongated, and is a light-bearer, having a gleaming, phosphorescent 
pustule at the tip of its tail. 



THE TRUE FISHES. 



77 




Fig. 220. — Sticklebacks and their nest {Gasterosteus aculeatus). 



Sticklebacks [Gasterosteidcz). — Sticklebacks are com- 
mon in North American streams, and other species in 



178 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

Europe (Fig. 220). The cheeks are mailed, and the single 
dorsal fin is preceded by spines, the number of which vary- 
in different species. They live in salt or fresh water, are 
quite small, and noted for their care of young, and as 
nest-builders. 

Ribbon-Fishes {Trachypteridce). — In these fishes the 
body is long and ribbon-shaped, the dorsal fin extending 
nearly the entire length of the body, the caudal fins being 
placed obliquely. 

Note. — They are probably the origin of many of the sea-serpent 
stories. According to Professor Wilson, of the University of Glasgow, 
Lord Norbury's smack Sovereign captured an allied form off the Scotch 
coast that was sixty feet in length, and from nine to ten inches in depth, 
the dorsal fin being six or seven inches deep. 

Remora (Echeneididce). — These fishes (Fig. 221), found 
in many seas, have upon the top of the head a flattened, 
oval disk, formed of pairs of transverse ridges or plates, 




Fig. 221. — Remora, showing the sucking-disk by which it clings to sharks. 



that are movable and directed obliquely backward, and 
form vacuum-chambers, the whole constituting a sucker, 
by which they attach themselves to sharks, turtles, and 
various large fishes. 

Note. — In Mozambique and other countries the remora is used to 
capture turtles. A ring and string are attached to the tail, by which 
the owner holds it, and when a turtle is sighted the fish is tossed ovei 
and attaches itself to the victim, that is soon hauled on board. 



THE TRUE FISHES. 



179 



Perches {Percidce). — The perches are carnivorous 
fishes of great variety, about one fifth inhabiting the fresh- 
water streams of various countries, while the others are 
marine. Perca fluviatilis is a common form in the United 
States. They spawn during the winter, forming nests or 
hollows in the gravel near the shore, in which they deposit 
their eggs. Allied are the pond-fishes (Eupomotis aureus), 
that are often richly colored. They are famous nest- 
makers, both male and female aiding in clearing away the 
refuse of the bottom where the nest is to be made. A de- 
pression is then formed and the eggs deposited and care- 
fully guarded. The spotted sunfish hibernates in the win- 
ter, burying itself in the mud. 

Bass (Labracidce). — The bass are mostly marine fishes. 
The striped-bass attains a length of five feet, and ranges 
from Nova Scotia to Florida. The white perch, yellow 
pike-perch, and striped lake-bass, are allied forms. The 
hard-scaled bass of Californian waters attains a length of six 
feet and a weight of four hundred pounds. Allied are the 
black sea-bass, groupers, etc. The Chromis (Fig. 222) of C^JL^ 
Lake Tiberias, that carries its eggs and young in its mouth, 
belongs to this group. Nearly all are important food-fishes. 

Big Drum - Fish (Pogonfys). — The drum - fish is a \ ck 
large, deep fish, attaining a weight of eighty pounds, and 
remarkable as a sound-producer.* 

* Sir John Richardson states that when aboard ship he has been 
kept awake by their drumming. The noises are made, according to 
some authorities, by beating their tails against the vessel, clapping to- 
gether their pharyngeal teeth, or due to the action of the pneumatic 
duct and swimming-bladder. The maigre is said to produce a flute- 
like note, audible in twenty fathoms. Many fishes utter sounds, but 
perhaps the grunt (Hcemulon), on the outer Florida reef, is most re- 
markable for the variation of the sounds, that are so loud and striking 
as to have caused the author, on more than one occasion, to toss the 
fish back for its pains. The dog-fish utters a croak or bark. The 
gizzard-shad, hippocampus, eels, cat-fish, porcupine-fish, sunfish, carp, 
gurnards, etc., utter sounds, either accidental or intentional. 



i8o 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 




THE TRUE FISHES. 



181 



Dolphins (Coryphcenidce). — The dolphins (Fig. 223) are 
large -headed pelagic fishes, tapering to the tail ; the dorsal 
fin high, and extending nearly the entire length of the body. 




Fig. 223. — Flying-fish (Exocaetus) pursued by the dolphin. 



Note. — They are justly celebrated for their wondrous colors, that 
.defy description, especially when dying, the various changes being due 
to the pressure of the convulsively contracted muscles on the chromato- 
phores or pigment-cells. 

Allied to them are the pompino and pilot-fishes (Nau- 
crates). The latter are little fishes that resemble the blue- 
fish in shape, and accompany large fishes, several always 
being found with large sharks. 

Mackerel (Scomber). — The mackerel is one of the 
most valuable of the food-fishes. They are from ten to 
eighteen inches in length, and richly ornamented with 
steel-blue and pearly tints. They run in schools, ranging 



l82 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

from Greenland to Cape Hatteras. During the winter they 
run in deep water, coming in-shore in May and June to 
spawn, each female depositing from 500,000 to 600,000 
eggs, that rise to the surface and float about. After spawn- 
ing the fishes keep on up the coast until they meet cold 
water, and at this time are taken all along the shore in vast 
numbers, entire fleets of vessels being engaged in the trade. 
Allied is the Spanish mackerel, the bonito, and the horse- 
mackerel, that attains a length of twelve feet and a weight 
of 1,200 pounds. 

Note. — The mackerel is a light-giver (phosphorescent), and so 
bright is the light of great schools that the fishermen see it at night 
from aloft, and, by surrounding it with a seine, capture the school. 
The large allied Jacks (Caranx), of the extreme outer Florida reef, in 
feeding, rush in thousands upon the beach of the keys, driving schools 
of small fish before them, leaping upon the sand, and striking the 
water, creating a sound that can be heard a mile. The occurrence is 
called a " Jack-beat." The fishes are utterly oblivious to their sur- 
roundings, and fishermen stand knee-deep in the almost solid mass, 
and spear or hurl them ashore with their hands. Pelicans, gulls, man- 
of-war birds, and human fishermen, all know the sound, and gather 
from far and near. 

Sword-Fishes (Xiphiidoi). — The sword-fishes (Fig. 
224) have the upper jaw developed into a long, sword-like 
projection ; they attain a length of from eleven to twenty- 
five feet, and the 
different genera 
are found in va- 
rious seas ; they 
feed upon mack- 
erel and other 
Fig. 224.— Sword-fish (Xiphias). fishes, dashing in- 

to the schools, 
cutting their victims down, and picking the dismembered 
parts up at leisure. The sail-fish (ffistiophorus), of vari- 
ous seas, has an enormous dorsal fin, that appears like a 
sail when the fish is at the surface. The sword-fishes do 




THE TRUE FISHES. 



183 



not breed on the North American shores, and a young 
one has never been seen here. The latter are often very 
unlike the adults. The young Histiophorus (Fig. 225) has 
jaws almost equal, armed with teeth, and a long, tall dor- 
sal fin. They are all valued as food-fishes. 




Fig. 225. — Young sword-fish {Histiophorus), nine millimetres long. 



Note. — The pugnacity of the sword-fish and its wonderful strength 
have been shown on many occasions. The yacht Red-Hot, of New Bed- 
ford, used by the United States Fish Commission, was sunk by a sword- 
fish in 1871. A sword-fish also penetrated the ship Queensbury in the 
same year, and the cargo had to be discharged in consequence. The 
ship Fortune was pierced in 1827, the sword penetrating copper, an 
inch board under-sheathing, a three-inch plank of hard wood, twelve 
inches of solid white-oak timber, and, lastly, the head of an oil-cask. 




FlG. 226. — Ch&todon rostratus, shooting a drop of water at an insect. 



1 84 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



For other accounts, and very complete history of the family, see " Re- 
port of Fish Commission," 1880. 

Angel-Fishes (C/uztodontidce). — The Chcetodon rostra- 
tus of Java has elongated jaws, through which, according 
to Cobbold and others, it can shoot drops of water at in- 
sects on overhanging bushes (Fig. 226). The archer-fish 
(Toxotes) has a prolonged under jaw, and by the same au- 
thorities is also accredited with shooting powers. 

Surgeon - Fishes (Acanthuridce). — The doctor-fish- 
es are common on the Florida reef, and are at times 
found farther north. They are from six to eight inches 
long, and have at the side of the narrow, keel-like por- 
tion of the tail a lance-like blade that can be thrown 
out at will, and proves a dangerous weapon.* 

C limbing- 
& Fishes {Labyrin- 

thici). — These fish- 
es, mostly from the 
East Indies, are 
noted for their pow- 
ers of living out of 
water. To this end 
they have accesso- 
ry gill-cavities, or 
labyrinthine organs 
(Fig. 227) that con- 
tain air and not wa- 
ter, as often stated. 




Fig. 227. — Anabas scandens : head, with k, the 
gill-cavity, laid open, and /, cavity contain- 
ing the foliated labyrinthine structure. 



Note. — The Anabas (see frontispiece) has been known to live out 
of water fcr five or six days, and makes long trips overland when 
the pools dry up. In certain parts of India they have been seen leav- 
ing the water in schools and crossing the country, using their pectoral 

* In specimens kept in an aquarium on the Florida reef they were 
found to be extremely pugnacious, striking their knives against all 
new-comers, lacerating and cutting them severely. 



THE TRUE FISHES. 185 

fins as feet. Daldorf, the Danish naturalist, captured an anabas climb- 
ing a palm — the borassus. This latter performance, however, is not a 
habit of the fish. 

Allied to the Anabas is the Gourami, a valued food- 
fish, that, though originally from the fresh waters of Cochin- 
China, has been introduced into many other countries. 

Note. — They are famous nest-builders, forming a nest out of grass 
{panicuni) and mud, about six days being required to erect it. From 
eight hundred to one thousand eggs are then deposited, the young ap- 
pearing in about two weeks, and remaining in the nest, only venturing 
out with the parents, who guard them with great vigilance. The Ophi- 
ocephalus, an allied Indian fish, also builds a nest for its young by 
biting off grass and weeds. It also burrows in the mud when streams 
dry up, but does not migrate overland. 

TautogS (Labridce). — The nipper, or cunner, is the 
most familiar form of this family. The blackfish (Fig. 
228), or tautog, is common in Long Island Sound, attaining 




Fig. 228. — Blackfish, or tautog. 

a large size. They spawn in May and June, depositing 
their eggs in the eel-grass and other weeds. Allied are 
the parrot-fishes of Florida, that have bony teeth fused 
into a parrot-like bill, with which they attack the branch 
coral. 

Note. — The related Acara of South America builds a nest in the 
sand, in which the eggs are deposited, while some species, after the *• * ' 
eggs are laid, take them in their mouths. This is continued from time 



1 86 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

to time, and either eggs or newly-hatched young may be found in the 
cavity of the gills or the space inclosed by the branchiostegal mem- 
brane. The unhatched eggs, according to Agassiz, are always found 
in the same position in the curious nursery — namely, in the upper part 
of the branchial arches, protected or held together by a special lobe or 
valve formed of the upper pharyngeals. Here they are held until the 
young are able to care for themselves. 

Sculpins (Cottidce). — These are marine fishes of fan- 
tastic shape, each individual often varying in color. The 
head and opercular bones are armed with sharp spines, 
and the fishes resemble the mossy rocks amid which they 
lie. The sea-raven, or yellow sculpin, is an allied form, 
attaining a length of two feet, and is remarkable for its 
grotesque coloring. The males of some species erect nests 
for their young. Allied are the sea-robins {Triglidce). 
The flying-robin (JDadylopterus) has enormous pectoral 
fins by which it soars over the water like the flying-fish. 
Sailors have been knocked over by them, and they are 
frequently blown aboard vessels. 

Gobies (Gobiidd). — The gobies are small fishes, in 
which the thoracic ventrals are united, forming a hollow 
disk. They have no air-bladders, and are remarkable for 
their habit of leaving the water. The scaleless and black 
gobies and several other species are found on the western 
coast of North America. 

Note. — In the Periopthalmus (frontispiece), common at the Feejee 
Islands, Ceylon, and other localities, the pectoral fins are greatly devel- 
oped, the head blunt, and the eyes staring and prominent. They leave 
the water and hop along the shore so fast that it is difficult to catch 
them, resembling frogs more than fishes. They feed out of water, pre- 
ferring a shell-less mollusk, the Onchidium (Fig. 72), and insects. The 
Boleopthalmns has similar habits. The blenny {Pholis) also leaves the 
water at times. The black goby is said to build a nest for its eggs. 

Lump-Fish (Cydopterida). — The lump-fishes range 
from the polar regions to Cape Hatteras, and are clumsy 
and shapeless, covered with tubercles. Their pectoral 



THE TRUE FISHES. 187 

and ventral fins unite in forming a disk or sucker by 
which they attach themselves to rocks. The Liparis is an 
allied form in which the ventral and pectoral fins also form 
a sucking disk. The Lepidogaster has two sucking-disks. 

Note. — According to Gunther, the male lump-fish forms a nest, the 
female laying 150,000 eggs, and the former guarding them with jealous 
care. The young follow the male, or, according to Duncan, cling to it 
at first fey their suckers ; later they are often seen at the surface of the 
water off shore on the New England coast. 

Star-Gazers ( Uranoscopidce). — In these fishes the eyes 
are placed upon the top of the head. They are armed 
with spines capable of inflicting dangerous wounds. Al- 
lied are the toad-fishes (Batrachidd) (Fig. 229). The fe- 
male toad-fish ex- 
cavates a hollow 
among the rocks, 
where the eggs are 
deposited, and in 
which the male 
takes its place, de- 

fendin°" the nurs- Fig. 22 9- — Toad-fish {Batrachus tau). 

ery with great 

pugnacity. The young when hatched cling to the rocks 
by their yolk-bags. One of this family, from Panama, 
has a perfect poison-gland, the spine calling to mind the 
venom-fang of a snake. 

Cod {Gadidce). — The cod is one of the most valuable 
of all fishes. They attain a length of five feet and a weight 
of one hundred pounds. They have three distinct dorsal 
fins, and a barbel projects from the under jaw. Their 
range is from Cape Hatteras north on both sides of the 
Atlantic. In November they spawn in-shore along the 
New England coast ; each female depositing about 9,300,- 
000 eggs that rise to the surface and float, the young ap- 
pearing twenty days later. In summer the fish seek the 




i88 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



cold waters from ten to fifteen miles off shore. The had- 
dock belongs to this family, and closely resembles the cod 
in habits and appearance. The tom-cod, ling, cusk, and 
pollock, are all allied forms. 

Note. — The Chiasmodus (Fig. 216) is a deep-sea ally ; the top 
of the head, the under jaws, and the fins, all gleam with vivid phos- 
phorescence ; but, more remarkable yet, their jaws work independently 
and alternately as in the snakes, and the stomach is capable of such 
distention that they can swallow fishes twice their own size. 




Fig. 230. — Fierasfer and young, a fish that lives in holothurians and star- 
fishes. A, adult ; B, young. 



The Fierasfer (Fig. 230, A) is a silvery, eel-like form, 
rarely found out of the digestive canal of holothurians 
(see page 39). One species inhabits a star-fish (Culcitd). 
The young (Fig. 230, B) pass through several changes be- 
fore assuming the adult form. 






Fig. 231. — Young flounder {P. Americanus), showing different positions of 
the eye as it moves over. (After Agassiz.) 



Flounders (Pleuronectidce). — When young, the floun- 
der is somewhat cylindrical ; has an eye upon each side, 
and swims vertically like other fishes. Later it sinks to 



THE • TR UE FISHES. 1 89 

the bottom, lying upon its left side, the eye moving over, 
the successive stages of the movement being shown in 
Fig. 231, until both eyes are upon the right side, which 
is now the upper portion. The mouth is generally twist- 
ed to conform with the new position. On the lower 
side the pigment-cells are not developed, and the skin is 
white, but the upper surface is colored and susceptible 
to change and adaptation to the prevailing color of the 
bottom. 

Note. — This protection, afforded many animals, is due to the con- 
traction and expansion of the different colored pigment-cells that are 
contained principally in the cutis. They contract or expand according 
to the light reflected ; the impression is received by the eye and trans- 
mitted by the sympathetic nerves. A blind flounder does not adapt 
its color to the surroundings. By severing some of the nerves Pou- 
chet produced, at pleasure, a fish striped on one side and spotted on 
the other, etc. The experiment may easily be tried by placing floun- 
ders on white, brown, and black bottoms, and changing them about ; 
so also with the octopus, anolis, and many others. 

Order VI. Pediculati. Walking-Fishes (Anten- 
nariidce). — These are pelagic fishes, floating about upon 
the surface of the sea among the vast fields of sargassum. 
The body is compressed, and three or four inches long ; 
the fins ornamented with barbels, so that they can be 
scarcely distinguished from the weed, which they also 
mimic in color. They are interesting nest-builders (Fig. 
232), collecting the floating weed into balls as large as 
a cheese, connecting it by bands of a glutinous secretion 
probably taken from a special gland, as in the stickle- 
backs (Fig. 206). The eggs are attached on the sides 
and within. Allied are the anglers {Lophiidce) (Fig. 233), 
so called from several spines on the head that have 
upon their ends barbels of flesh. The spines move up 
and down over the enormous mouth like a fishing-rod ; 
the waving bait attracting the smaller fishes, that often 
fall victims to the curious fisherman. Some of this fam- 



190 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



ily, discovered by the " Challenger," are bedecked on all 
parts with fringes that exactly mimic sea-weed. The 





Fig. 232. — The Antennarius marmoratus and its floating nest, formed of 
gulf-weed. Fish natural size, the nest reduced. 



young pass through many changes before assuming the 
adult form. 



THE TRUE FISHES. 



I 9 ] 




Fig. 233. — The angler {Lophius piscatorius). 

Order VII. Lophobranchii. Sea-Horses {Hippo- 
campidce). — These curious fishes have a fibrocartilaginous 
skeleton. The gills take the form of tufted lobes on each 
side of the branchial arches. The snout and lower jaw 
are developed into a tube, at the end of which is the 
mouth. The tail is prehensile, like an opossum's, and 
by it they cling to plants, or swim upright by the dorsal 
fin alone, their movements being slow and deliberate. 



Note. — They are wonderful mimics. The leaf-finned sea-horse, or 
Phylfopteryx eqties (Fig. 234), from Australian waters, is provided with 
numbers of reddish streaming filaments that resemble plants, forming 
a perfect protection to the fish as they float about. The male sea-horse 
receives the eggs into a pouch on its ventral surface. "When they hatch, 
it presses the pouch against a stone or shell, and forces them out. The 
pipe-fish belongs to this group, and is also a mimic of the weed. The 
male receive the eggs from the female and carries them in a pouch. 
In the genera Nerophis and Protocampus the pouch is wanting, the 
eggs being attached to the abdomen of the female. In the Soleno- 



: 9 2 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



stoma, an allied form of the Indian Ocean, the mother carries her eggs 
in a pouch formed by the ventral fins, they being held in place by long 
filaments extending from its sides. 




Fig. 234. — Sea-horse {Phyllopteryx eques), that is protected by its resem- 
blance to sea-weed. 



Order VIII. Plectognathi. General Characteristics. 
— In these fishes the scales are often modified into spines 
or plates. The ventral fins are generally absent. 

File-Fishes (Balistidce) — The file-fishes are remark- 
ably deep and thin, and are often protected by plates 

or spines re- 
sembling those 
of the Ganoids. 
Allied are the 
trunk -fishes 
(Fig. 235) (Os- 
tracionidce) , that 
are inclosed in 
a box or armor composed of bony plates or scales ; the 
tail, mouth, and fins being the only parts movable. 




Fig. 235. — Trunk-fish {Ostracion Yalei). 



THE TRUE FISHES. 



193 



Porcupine-Fishes (Tetradontidce). — These fishes are 
often covered with sharp spines, and when removed from 
the water they inflate themselves with air, resembling an 
oval, spiny balloon.* Each jaw is divided in the middle, 
so that they appear to have four teeth. The diodons are 
allied forms. 

Sunfishes f (Orthagoriscidce). — These are oval or ob- 
long in shape (Fig. 236). The dorsal and anal fins are 




Fig. 236. — Sunfish {Orthagoriscus mold). 

* They are often figured in this shape, but it is unnatural, and 
only attained when the fish is forcibly taken from the water. The 
Diodon antennatus has undivided, teeth-like mandibles, so power- 
ful that when swallowed by a shark they have been known, accord- 
ing to Darwin, to eat their way out through the stomach and skin of 
the fish. 

\ They are sluggish fishes, rolling along at the surface, and are 
quite common on the eastern coast of the United States and in 
other seas. The body is covered with a thick mucus and infested 
by parasites, goose-barnacles even living in its mouth. Semper and 
Cobbold refer to its luminous qualities. They attain a height of six 
feet, and weigh five or six hundred pounds. The liver alone is 
valuable. 

9 



I 9 4 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

alike and opposite each other, the caudal fin seemingly a 
mere projective rim of the entire hinder part of the body. 
Powerful muscles lead into it, but it is probably of little 
use in locomotion. 

Speciinens for Study. — The habits and exterior parts of 
fishes can be studied from minnows, sunfish, stickle- 
backs, etc., kept ' in an aquarium or a glass vessel of any 
kind provided with aquatic plants to aerate the water. 
Dissections of small specimens are best made in a dish 
under water, when each part shown in Fig. 194 should be 
determined. With a delicate knife, the various organs can 
be exposed, as the brain, nostrils, ears, etc. In preparing 
a first skeleton, boil the fish, and reconstruct the skeleton 
as well as possible by (Fig. 193) marking all the parts and 
observing their relations one to another. In studying the 
circulation, inject into the veins some colored fluid, as ver- 
milion. It is extremely important to make a drawing of 
the fish or its parts. 

Works on Fishes for further reference. 

"Challenger Reports"; "Game-Fishes of the United States," 
Killbourne text, by G. Brown Goode ; "Ameiican Fauna," by J. 
B. Holder, M. D. ; " Fishes of Massachusetts," Storer ; Goode and 
Bean, " List of Fishes of Massachusetts Bay and Adjacent Waters," in 
"Bulletin of the Essex Institute," vol. ii ; "Reports of the United 
States Commissioner of Fisheries and Various State Commissioners " ; 
"Skates' Eggs and Young," F. W. Putnam, "American Naturalist," 
vol. iii, p. 617 ; " Gar-Pikes, Old and Young," B. G. Wilder, " Popular 
Science Monthly," vol. ii ; " Respiration of Amia," B. G. Wilder, 
" Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of 
Science," 1877, also in " Popular Science Monthly " ; " Blind Fishes 
of the Mammoth Cave," " American Naturalist," vol. vi, p. 6, and 
" Report of Peabody Academy of Science," 1871 ; " List of Fresh- 
Water Fishes of North America," D. S. Jordan, " Bulletin of the Buf- 
falo Academy of Natural Science," vol. iii ; " Introduction to the Study 
of Fishes," Gunther ; "Development of Osseous Fishes," Agassiz, 
" Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences," vol. 
xiv ; and the works of Brehm, Wood, and Cassell. 



AMPHIBIOUS VERTEBRATES. 



195 



Class IV. — Amphibious Vertebrates. Salaman- 
ders, Toads, etc. (Batrachid). 

General Characteristics. — The Batrachians are amphibi- 
ous Vertebrates that breathe air by perfect lungs, though 
some adult forms have gills. They pass through a distinct 
metamorphosis. The higher forms have paired limbs, the 
toes not being clawed as in the reptiles. They are gen- 
erally oviparous. 

Skeleton. — In the frog the skull is closely connected 
with the body, and differs from that of higher Vertebrates 
in being partly cartilaginous 
(Fig. 237). The bones of the 
limbs, when present, resemble 
those of higher Vertebrates. 



Tarsus. 



Metatarsus. 




Fig. 237. — Skull of the frog {Rana 
esculenta), from below, showing 
teeth and the cartilaginous gir- 
dle-bone, y. 



This is shown in Fig. 238, 
which should be compared 
with the limb of the cat. 

Digestion. — The mouth is 
generally large, and in the fro^ 
are armed with delicate, saw- 




Phalanges. 



Fig. 238. — Bones of the right 
leg of a young toad, greatly- 
enlarged. The femur not 
shown ; the tibia and fibula 
are combined together. (Af- 
ter Morse.) 

I (Fig. 237) the upper jaws 
like teeth. Tadpoles have 



196 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

the jaws enveloped in horny beaks. The liver is two- 
lobed, and the intestine short and straight, not enlarging 
into a stomach proper. Frogs and toads feed upon in- 
sects as a rule. 

Respiration. — At first Batrachians with few exceptions 
breathe by means of gills, as the fishes, the breathing- 
organs being external, as in the young of the curious 
fish Polypterus (Fig. 207). Frogs, toads, and newts have 
at first two sets of gills, an external and an internal 
pair. The former disappear first. As growth progress- 
es, they lose the latter also, then breathing by perfect 
lungs. 

Circulation. — When young and possessing the red gills, 
blood is pumped to them as in the fishes, the heart then 
possessing two chambers, an auricle and a ventricle. 
Later, when the lungs appear, the auricle divides and the 
heart becomes three-chambered ; the blood, on account of 
its incomplete aeration, is cold. 

Development. — The Batrachians pass through a distinct 
metamorphosis. The eggs are generally placed in or 
near the water, enveloped in some cases in a jelly-like 
mass, the young first being water-animals, breathing by 
external gills (Fig. 243), finally changing to the adult 
form. 

Order I. Trachystomata. Sirens (Sirenida). — The 
sirens are long, slender creatures, with permanent gills. 
They have no hind-limbs ; even the fore pair, which are 
either three- or four-toed, are weak and almost useless. 
The great siren (S. lacertina) attains a length of three feet, 
is nearly black in color, dotted with light spots, the abdo- 
men pink or purple. It has four toes on each fore-limb, 
and is found in the muddy ditches and swamps of the 
Southern States. A small siren {Pseudobranchus striatus), 
with three toes, is found in the rice-field streams of 
Georgia. 

Order II. Proteida.— The Proteus (Fig. 239) is a 



AMPHIBIOUS VERTEBRATES. 



197 



blind * Batrachian found in the subterranean caves of 
Adelsberg in Carniola, Austria. 




Fig. 239. — Proteus of Carniola caverns, showing the external gills. 

Note. — They are pure white, have bristling gills and gill-openings, 
and small teeth. The limbs are four in number, the fore pair having 
three toes and the hinder pair two. They breathe under water by the 
gills and above by lungs, while experiment has shown that the former 
can be removed without injuring them. The mud-puppy {Necturus) 
of the United States is a familiar form in the Mississippi country and 
upper New York. The body is broad and flat ; each foot has four 
toes ; they attain a length of two feet. They are extremely sluggish, 
living in muddy water. The eggs are about the size of peas. 

Order III. Tailed Amphibians (Urodela).— In this 
order the gills are generally only present in the early 
stages ; the body is slender and eel-like. The Congo 
snake (Fig. 240) has extremely delicate limbs, and inhabits 
the muddy waters of the Southern States. The hell- 
bender, or Menoto?7ia, found in the Mississippi Valley, pos- 
sesses permanent gills, is flat, with weak limbs and a prom- 

* The eyes of the Proteus are destitute of a crystalline lens, although 
they have a retina. 



198 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



inent tail. The gigantic Japanese salamander, over three 
feet in length, belongs to this order ; they are incorrectly- 
supposed to pass through fire 
without harm. The largest sala- 
mander in the United States is 
the Amblystoma (Fig. 241). The 
history of Amblystoma mavortium 
is extremely remarkable. The 
young for a long time were con- 
sidered separate and distinct ani- 
mals. They lived in the elevated 
lakes, 8,000 to 9,000 feet above 
the sea, from Montana to Mexico, 
and were well known as axolotls, 
{Amphiuma means). having external gills and true 





FlG. 241. — Axolotl, a creature living and breeding for generations in the 
water. Amblystoma coming out of the water — an axolotl which has lost 
its gills and breathes by lungs alone. 



AMPHIBIOUS VERTEBRATES. 



199 



lungs, yet living in the water. Finally some of them were 
taken to Paris, where their gills shriveled, and they finally 
left the water, becoming true lung-breathing animals, the 
Ambly stoma ; so the axolotl was only the larval form, that 
owing to the extreme dryness of the atmosphere in Mex- 
ico never developed, but lived, multiplied, and died in 
the water. 

Note. — It is now known that in the lakes of Utah and Wyoming 
other species attain the adult form. The eggs are deposited in masses, 
the young appearing in July. They reproduce lost parts, legs and tail 
if removed appearing a few weeks later. They are useful scavengers, 
and are eaten by the Mexicans. If the lungs and gills of the axo- 
lotl are removed, it still can breathe by absorption through the skin. 
Frogs can breathe in a similar way. 




Fig. 242. — The newt (Lissotriton punctahts). Male and young in the 
water, female on the bank. 



The tritons, or newts (Fig. 242), are common in vari- 
ous parts of the world, and are often brilliantly colored. 
A spotted newt in England bends up the side of a leaf, 
gluing it together and forming a nest for a single egg, all 



200 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

the others being placed with equal care. Our common 
triton lays its eggs singly on submerged plants ; others 
are connected by a thread, whether on land or in the 
water. 

Order IV. Blind Snakes (Gymnophiona).— The ani- 
mals of this order are only snake-like in external appear- 
ance and in name, having elongated cylindrical bodies 
destitute of legs. The skin is smooth, containing imbed- 
ded scales, and some species secrete in small pores a vis- 
cous secretion similar to that of snails. The eyes are small 
and beneath the skin. The Cozcilia of the tropics attains 
a length of several feet, and lives underground like the 
earth-worm, feeding upon insects. A Surinam species is 
viviparous ; the young are born in the water and have 
external, leaf-shaped gills, that are absorbed as they 
leave it. 

Order V. Tailless Amphibians {Anura). — We now 
come to the frogs and toads, in which the body is short, 
thick, and tailless in the adults, with four limbs, the hind- 
er pair adapted for leaping. The skin covers the body 
loosely, the muscles not adhering to it. The tongue is 
fastened to the front of the jaw, the tip pointing down 
the throat ; as a rule, the lower jaw is without teeth. 
The eggs (Fig. 243, e) are deposited in jelly-like masses 
in some pool ; in two weeks, more or less, the young ap- 
pear, those of American toads being darker than those 
of frogs. They now cling to the weed by little suckers 
near the mouth parts, 1 ; branching tufts now appear on 
each side of the head — these are the gills, 2 ; the mouth 
soon appears, the tufted gills are absorbed, and we have 
the tadpole with six fish-like gill-slits. The legs are now 
seen, 4, first appearing as little bumps under the skin, 
and finally we have an animal resembling a lizard, with 
four legs and a long tail, 5 ; the latter is gradually ab- 
sorbed, 6 ; and the toad or frog crawls upon the shore in 
perfect form, 7. 



AMPHIBIOUS VERTEBRATES. 



201 




Fig. 243. — Metamorphosis of the frog, e, eggs ; 1, tadpoles just out of the 
e gg ; 2 ) with outside gills ; 3, with gills hidden, and beak-like mouth ; 4, 
hind-legs appearing ; 5, all legs grown, but fish-tail remaining ; 6, put- 
ting on frog appearance, tail being absorbed ; 7, young perfect frog. 



Toads {BufontdcE). — The toads in the adult form are 
terrestrial, the toes are webbed, and the skin generally 
covered with warty protuberances. The eggs of Pelobates 
are deposited in the water in a loop. The male of the 
Alytes of Europe winds the eggs about its body in strings, 
and goes into the water, remaining until the young appear. 
The spade-foot is noted for its sudden appearance in cer- 
tain localities. It remains but a day or so in the water, 



202 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



where the eggs are hatched in about six days, the young 
leaving the water in three weeks. The toads hibernate 
during the winter in burrows, and often have special nests 
for retreat during the day. 

Note. — The tales concerning their poisonous properties, and power 
of living in solid rock, are fabulous. A South American species mews 
like a cat, while the European fire-bellied toad utters an extraordinary 
moan. Toads are extremely valuable as destroyers of noxious insects, 
and are in turn preyed upon by snakes. 




Fig. 244. — Flying tree-toad of Borneo {Rhacophorus). 



Tree-Toads (Hylidcz) — The tree-toads are the most 
interesting of the order. They are all of small size, and 
have the tips of the fingers and toes provided with a disk 



AMPHIBIOUS VERTEBRATES. 



203 



with which they cling to trees and any surface. Their 
habits are very singular. In tropical Africa, a species 
(Polypedates) deposit their eggs on leaves by the side of 
streams into which they are washed by the rain. In the 
Island of Guadeloupe there are no marshes, and the young 
tree-toads appear directly in the adult shape : this is called 
a suppressed metamorphosis. A tree-toad in Martinique 
carries its young tadpoles clinging to its back, presenting 
a strange sight. In the Andes, a toad (Nototrenia) has a 
sac on its back in which the young are carried. The most 
remarkable tree-toad is a flier (R/iacop/iorus, Fig. 244) from 
New Guinea. Its toes and fingers are completely webbed 
so that they form parachutes, the little creature springing 
from limb to limb like a flying-squirrel. They are four 
inches in length, the web of the hind-feet expanding four 
square inches. Nearly all tree-toads are green or brown 
in color, adapted to the leaves or limbs of trees, thus escap- 
ing their enemies. Hyla micans exudes a luminous secre- 
tion that may serve to frighten its enemies, while a French 
species exudes when attacked a strong, pungent odor. 



Valxje. — The 
tree-toads protect 
the trees from 
noxious insects. 
Hyla arborea is 
used as a barome- 
ter, placed in a 
bottle, with a small 
ladder upon which 
they ascend in 
pleasant weather, 
remaining at the 
bottom if it prom- 
ises to be inclem- 
ent. In the Su- 
rinam toad (Fig. 
245), allied to the 
family, the male 




Fig. 245. — Surinam toad, showing young escaping 
from the cells in the mother's back. 



204 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

places the eggs on the female's back, where they become imbedded, 
cells growing up around them, the mother lying in the mud until they 
appear, when a strange spectacle is seen, the young leaping from their 
prisons in all directions. 

Frogs (Ranidce). — The frogs are the highest forms 
of the order. The upper jaw and palate have fine, sharp 
teeth (Fig. 237), and the throats of the males are provided 
with vocal sacs. The bull, marsh, and pickerel frogs are 
our common species. Their eggs are laid in masses in 
the water in April, May, and June. They hibernate in 
the mud during the winter. The bull-frog has been known 
to attain a length of two feet, and its noise can be heard 
for over a mile. They mimic the color of the rushes of 
the river-side in which they live. Their geographical dis- 
tribution is wide. One species is found living in the hot 
springs of Pisa where the temperature is 115 Fahr. They 
Eve upon insects, but the great Indian tiger-frog has been 
observed to capture sparrows. The American leopard- 
frog is one of the most active, leaping ten or twelve feet 
at a single bound. In the paradoxical frog of South 
America, the larva, instead of growing, decreases in size 
to attain the adult shape. 

Value. — The capture of edible frogs forms a valuable industry in 
France. 

Works on Amphibians for further reference. 

" Smithsonian Reports " ; Holbrook's " Herpetology of North 
America " ; Allen's " List of Reptiles and Batrachians near Spring- 
field, Massachusetts " ; Huxley's " Invertebrates." 

Class V. — True Reptiles. Snakes, Lizards, etc. 
(Reptilia). 

Ge?ieral Characteristics. — The true reptiles, snakes, 
lizards, and turtles, are distinguished from the Amphibians 
by having scaled bodies, clawed limbs, and by not passing 
through a metamorphosis or tadpole stage, developing 



TRUE REPTILES. 205 

directly from the egg. They have many features in com- 
mon with the birds, as true nostrils and a long windpipe. 
About three thousand living reptiles are known. 

The Skeleton. — The skeleton varies much in different 
orders. The vertebrae in many of the snakes consist of 
three hundred different bones working on a ball-and-socket 
plan. The limbs in the various forms are adapted for walk- 
ing or swimming, as the case may be. 

Digestion. — With the exception of the turtles, that have 
a horny mandible, the reptiles all possess sharp teeth, ar- 
ranged either in rows or separate cavities, that are adapted 
for crushing, cutting, or holding prey. The stomach of 
snakes is but little removed from an ordinary intestine. 
In the crocodiles it resembles the gizzard of birds. 

Circulation. — In the crocodile the heart is four-cham- 
bered as in the birds, while in other forms there is, besides 
the two auricles that are always present, but one ventricle. 
The blood is imperfectly aerated, consequently the reptiles 
are cold-blooded. 

Respiration. — The reptiles breathe by lungs alone ; and 
here we first find a true nostril, as in the birds and higher 
forms. In the snakes the lung is single. 

Development. — The reptiles are oviparous, the egg-shell 
generally being soft and crisp. Some are ovoviviparous, 
or the young are developed before the egg is laid. 

Order I. Snakes (Ophidic?) . General Characteristics. 
— The snakes are distinguished by their long, cylindrical, 
footless bodies. The bones of the backbone or verte- 
brae join each other on a ball-and-socket plan (Fig. 246, 
&, c), and often number 400. The bones of the lower jaw 
are merely connected by ligaments, e, allowing great ex- 
tensibility. The teeth are not set in sockets, and point 
backward, being only used in holding prey. The tongue 
is extensile, and held within a sheath. The eyes are with- 
out movable lids, hence the staring expression of all snakes. 
The gliding motion is effected by the successive advancing 



206 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



of the large ventral or lower scales. The skin is moulted 
once a year, the process being assisted by the growth of 
casting-hairs (Fig. 247) beneath the skin, that push it 




Fig. 246. — Skeleton of a snake, sp, spinous processes of the joints ; r, ribs ; 
q, quadrate bones, joining upper and lower jaws ; <?, front of the lower 
jaw, where there is an elastic band in the place of bone ; &, ball end of 
joint, facing the tail ; c, cup end of joint, facing the head. 




Fig. 247. — Casting process in the skin 
of the adder, h /i, the casting hairs ; 
the portion of skin above them is 
pushed away, and the hairs themselves 
form the ridges on the new skin. 



upward. In the North 
they hibernate in win- 
ter, and in the South 
pass through a summer 
sleep. Over one thou- 
sand species are known, 
one hundred and thirty 
species being found in 
North America. 

The Vipers ( Fi- 
peridce). — About twenty- 
two species of these 
snakes are known. In 
the puff-adder, of the 
Cape of Good Hope, the 



TRUE REPTILES. 



207 



poison -fangs are 

extremely large, 

and the snake is 

much dreaded. 

They are confined 

to the Old World. 

Rattlesnakes 

{Crotalidce). — In 

this family are the 

rattlesnakes (Fig. 

248), moccasins, 

and copperheads, 

forty species in 

all, and extremely 

poisonous. The 

upper jaws con- 
tain few teeth, but 

have needle-like, 

recurved, grooved 

fangs, that are 

raised at the 

slightest alarm. The poison-glands (Fig. 249) are at their 

base, and when the mouth closes upon an enemy the 

muscles that ef- 
fect it press the 
gland, forcing the 
poison into the 
wound. They 
have a pit or de- 
pression between* 
the nostrils. The 
true rattlesnakes 

rarely exceed 
Fig. 249.— Jaw of a rattlesnake. //, N ^^ ^^ . q 

poison-fangs ; g, gland secreting poison ; 

c, canal leading from gland to base of fang ; length, and have 
/, harmless tongue ; s, saliva-glands. the tail terminat- 




FiG. 248.— Rattlesnake {Crotalus). 




208 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

ing in horny, button-like rattles (Fig. 248), incorrectly 
supposed to indicate the age of the snake. The rattle 
is sounded at the approach of danger. The bite of the 
rattlesnake is often fatal if no remedy is at hand. They 
hibernate in the winter, and the young have been seen 
passing into the mouth of the mother for protection. 
The fer-de-lance of the West Indies is deadly. It is 
dark-yellow or brown, and attains a length of six feet. 
It is viviparous, giving birth to fifty or sixty young. 
Moccasins. — Water-moccasins are common in the South- 
ern States, and are much dreaded. They are about two 
feet in length, dark brown in color, with transverse bars 
of black, and are extremely vindictive. The copperhead 
is also dreaded. Both have been observed to receive their 
young into their mouths, and so protect them. 

Value. — Rattlesnake-oil is valued, and crotalin is obtained from 
the snake. Oil of the copperhead is also used in medicine. Rattle- 
snake leather is used in bags, cases, etc. 

Sea-Snakes (Hydrophtdce). — These snakes, fifty spe- 
cies of which are known, are found in the Indian, China, 




Fig. 250. — Platurus vulcanicus, a sea-snake living in the fresh-water lake 
of Taal (Luzon), and having a paddle-like tail. (After Semper.) 

and Australian seas, and have been seen near Panama. 
They only approach the shore to breed, and, with one ex- 
ception (Fig. 250), are marine. They are extremely poison- 



TRUE REPTILES. 



209 



ous. The tail is laterally compressed, forming a paddle, 
with which they swim. They attain a length of five or six 
feet, and are viviparous. Pro- 
fessor Semper found one at 
Mindanao in the rocks, cov- 
ered by twenty young, that 
were all two feet long. 

Allied are the Elapidce, 
among the most deadly of all 
snakes. The fangs are erect 
and fixed. The £/aps, of 
Central America, is richly col- 
ored. The Naia haje, of Af- 
rica, has a hood that is erect- 
ed when it is excited. To 
the early Egyptians it was an 
emblem of divinity. The co- 
bra,* or hooded snake (Fig. 
251), is much feared in In- 
dia. When enraged, it raises 
a curious hood about the 
head by drawing forward its anterior ribs. 

Note. — Over 19,000 persons were killed by cobras in India in 1880, 
and 2,000 head of cattle. During this time, 212,776 cobras were killed 
by snake-killers, paid by the Government. Since 1870, 200,000 persons 
have been killed by these reptiles alone. According to the Emperor 
of Brazil, permanganate of potash is one of the most successful anti- 
dotes to the venom of snakes. Large doses of whisky or brandy, 
enough to intoxicate, are generally an antidote to the bite of the rattle- 
snake. 

Pythons (Pythonidci). — This family comprises the 
largest and most powerful of all the snakes ; forty-six spe- 

* Snake-charming in India is supposed by many to be a trick, but 
this is not so in all cases. A missionary in Burmah found that he 
could exert the curious influence over the cobra, and handle it without 
fear ; he performed the same feats as the native jugglers. 




showing the 



2io BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

cies are known, mostly inhabiting tropical regions. The 
Python is found in Africa and the East Indies. The rock 
python is a yellowish-brown color above, and inhabits the 
rice-fields. It attains a length of twenty-six feet, and de- 
vours large animals. The female lays about fifteen eggs, 
coiling about them,* her body increasing in temperature, 
and in this inclosure the young hatch in about fifty-six 
days. They frequently find their way into native houses. 
The natives seize them by the tail and rush off, dashing 
them against the trees. The boa-constrictor is a native 
of tropical America, and ranges from ten to forty feet 




Fig. 252. — Anaconda, or water-boa. 

in length. According to Wallace, Dr. Gardner measured 
one of the latter length that had swallowed a horse, and 
that they devour cattle is, he conceives, not improbable. 
Some of them have rudimentary hind-limbs, or spur-like 
hooks, that are used when the snake hangs from trees. 
The boas burrow in the ground. The anaconda (Fig. 
252), or water-boa, is common in tropical South America, 
attaining a length of twenty feet, and preys upon large 
animals. They enter the water freely, and when hang- 
ing from the trees so resemble vines, their colors being 
sombre, that they are perfectly protected. Numbers of 

* This habit was observed at the London Zoological Garden. 



TRUE REPTILES. 211 

authentic cases are known of boas having attacked human 
beings. 

Value. — The oil of the large boas is much used for various pur- 
poses ; the skin is tanned, and made into boots, saddle-cloths, bags, etc. 

Allied are the ground fanged snakes. The Tree- 
Snakes (Dendrophidci) have long, slender bodies, adapted 
for movement in the trees, and in many their rich green 
coloring affords them complete protection. They are 
tropical, and often found coiled up in birds' nests. About 
thirty-five species are known. The whip-snakes are allied 
forms. Fresh- Water Snakes (Homafopsidce). — In this 
family of fifty species are snakes that live more or less 
in fresh-water streams, and are found in all parts of the 
world, but especially in the East. The desert snakes are 
allied forms, and the curious Dasypeltis, that lives upon 
eggs, swallowing them entire. 

In the Columbridce, represented by two hundred and sev- 
enty species, which include many of our American snakes, 
there are no rudimentary limbs. Both jaws are armed 
with teeth. The striped snakes, Eutcenia, a common form 
in the Middle States, attain a length of two feet ; hiber- 
nating in holes or burrows during the winter, appearing in 
great numbers in early spring. They prey upon toads, 
frogs, and other small animals. The garter-snake is vivipa- 
rous, and often protects its young by receiving them into 
its mouth. They are extremely prolific, bearing at times 
seventy-eight young. The viviparous spotted spreading 
adder is even more remarkable in this respect, producing 
eighty-seven young at times. The hog-nosed snakes of 
North America have a short, thick body, with a large head. 
The black-snakes are a lustrous, metallic black, and attain 
a length of five feet. They are harmless, preying upon 
animals either in the trees or on the ground. The crack- 
whip snakes are incorrectly supposed by some to seize 
their tails in their mouths and roll along. 



212 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



Order II. Lizards {Lacertilia). General Character- 
istics. — The lizards (Fig. 253) are scaly reptiles with cy- 




Fig. 253. — Skeleton of a lizard, sfl, spinous processes, which in the tortoise 
are flattened into plates ; r, ribs ; s, shoulder-bone ; # , upper arm ; e, 
elbow ; /a, forearm ; //, hip-bone ; (A, thigh-bone ; k, knee ; /, bones of 
the leg ; g, quadrate bone between upper and lower jaw. 



lindrical bodies, long, slender tails, and have usually two 
pairs of feet. The jaws are not extensible, as in the snakes, 
and are armed with sharp, conical teeth. The tongue is 
free, long, and sometimes forked. All lizards are ovipa- 
rous. Their eggs are deposited either in the ground or in 
hollow trees. About seventeen hundred living species are 
known ; eighty-two species are found in North America, 
north of Mexico. 

Chameleons (Chamceleonidcz). — These strange lizards 

(Fig. 254) are 
found in Africa 
and Asia, thirty 
species being 
known. The 
body is com- 
pressed, the 
skin rough, the 
} tail round and 
J prehensile; the 
tongue is cylin- 
drical, and ca- 



1 ^K^siilllil] 2'. mi 

FlG. 254. — The chameleon, showing tongue. 




TRUE REPTILES. 



213 



pable of projecting five or six inches, and covered with 
a sticky secretion for the capture of insects. The eyes 
are large, with a circular eyelid, and are independent of 
each other. Their five toes are arranged in two oppo- 
site groups of pincers. Their movements are slow and 
deliberate, and their power of adapting their color to that 
of their surroundings is remarkable. The eggs are round, 
white, and deposited in the ground. In the Flying-Liz- 
ards {Agamidce) of the East Indies (Fig. 255) the tail is 
long and snake-like, while between the limbs extends a 
membrane supported by the 
much-prolonged fifth or sixth 
hind-ribs. The female depos- 
its three or four eggs at a time. 
The frilled lizard of Queens- 
land has hind-legs adapted for 
leaping. The Moloch horridus 
of Australia is a sluggish form, 
completely covered with large 
and small spine-bearing tuber- 
cles. The Iguana* is found 
in the tropical portions of North 
and South America. It attains 
a length of five feet, and is ex- 
tremely powerful, inflicting ter- 
rible blows with its tail. They 
live among the trees, subsisting 
upon the fruit, and are sought 

after as an article of food. The Anolis (Fig. 256) of the 
Southern States belongs to this family, and is noted for 
its changes of color. The horned lizard (Fig. 257) of 
Mexico and the Western States is covered with spines, 

* John G. Bell, the naturalist and companion of Audubon in many 
of his expeditions, saw an iguana rush across the surface of a river in 
Central America, keeping upon the surface by the lightning-like rapidity 
of its movements. A very few minutes sufficed to cross. 




Fig. 255. — Red-throated flying 
dragon (Draco), showing 
membrane supported by ribs. 



214 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



and the head ornamented with spikes. They run with 
great rapidity, and so resemble the dry ground that they 




are indistinguishable a 

few feet away. They 

live upon insects, and 

are easily domesticated. 

Allied to the iguanas is 

the great sea-lizard of 

the Galapagos Islands. 

They attain a length of four 

feet. Their tails are flattened 

and their feet partly webbed. They 

take to the water readily, living upon 

sea-weed. A land species lives in 

burrows. 

The Wall-Lizards {Geckoiti- 
dce) * are short, flattened, and slow 

* The middle of each caudal vertebra 
has a thin cartilaginous partition. At this 
point the tail is often broken, and eventu- 
ally renewed, sometimes two tails growing. 
According to Gunther, they are enabled to 
throw off their tails spontaneously when pursued, the wriggling offcast 
attracting the attention of the pursuer, while the gecko escapes. They 



Fig. 256. — The Ameri- 
can chameleon (Ano- 
lis principalis). 



TRUE REPTILES. 



215 



of motion (Fig. 258). The toes are provided with cling- 
ing ridges of bristles, by which they walk upon the walls 
in search of insects, though in the forest species this ar- 
rangement is sometimes absent. The jaws have small 
teeth, and the tongue is not extensible. 




Fig. 257. — Horned lizard {Phrynosoma cornutum). 
Dorsal view and side view of head. 



Fig. 258.— Gecko. 



The Scinks {Scinktdce) are spindle-shaped (Fig. 259) 
and covered with smooth scales. The five-lined and red- 
headed scinks are common in the Southern States. The 
Glass Snakes (Chalcidce) have no feet, the body being 
serpent-like (Fig. 260). The glass snake 




Fig. 259. — Scink {Scincus officinalis), showing structure of the feet. 



have also been seen devouring their own cast-off skin and wriggling 
tail. The geckos of the East Indies utter a shrill cry. The leaf-tailed 
gecko is one of the most curious. One species is said to be luminous. 
They are all insect-eaters. Two hundred species are known. 



2l6 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 




Fig. 260. — Glass snake (Ophisaurus ventralis). 



of the Southern and Western States attains a length of 
three feet, and is so fragile that the slightest blow severs 

it in sections. The 
upper surface is 
yellowish green 
spotted with 
black. 

Heloderma 
{Helodermidce) . — 
The " Gila mon- 
ster," or Heloder- 
ma (Fig. 261), is 
the largest lizard 
of North America, 
attaining a length 
of three feet, and enjoying the distinction of being the only 
poisonous member of the order. In appearance they are 
repulsive, being covered with scales, the whole resembling a 
flinty, faceted armor. The general color is black, marked 
with yellowish-orange or white interspaces. The tail is 
cylindrical and clumsy. Their movements are slow and 
uncertain, resembling those of a young alligator. The 
teeth are fissured, and at the bases of the grooves are the 
ducts from which the poisonous saliva passes into the 
wound.* After biting, the heloderma appears sluggish, 

* According to Mitchell and Reichert, the physiological action of 
the poison is quite different from that of snake-poison. The latter 
kills by paralyzing the respiratory center, while the poison of the helo- 
derma paralyzes the heart. When injected subcutaneously it causes no 
local injury, the effect being to arrest the motion of the heart, which 
slowly becomes contracted, and the spinal cord paralyzed. It is not 
necessarily fatal to human beings, though an American scientist, after 
being bitten, was barely able to call assistance. In experiments tried 
by Sir John Lubbock, a live frog when bitten died almost immediately 
in convulsions. A Guinea-pig, bitten in the hind-leg, died in three 
minutes, and young rats succumbed even more quickly. The specimen 
kept in the New York Zoological Garden thrived upon hard-boiled eggs. 



TRUE REPTILES. 



217 



like many of the poisonous snakes. They occur in Mex- 
ico, Arizona, and Lower California. Allied are the water- 




I 

c 

>. 

"5 

o 



lizards ( Varanidcz), the huge monitors, seven feet in length, 
the gigantic lace-lizard, and others. 
10 



218 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



The Double - Walkers (Amphisbcenidce) (Fig. 262) 
are found in tropical America, often in the nests of ants. 
They move in either direction with equal ease. Thirteen 
species are known in Asia, Africa, and South America. 




FlG. 262. — Amphisbcena fuliginosa. 

Order III. Turtles (Clielonia). General Characteris- 
tics). — The turtles (Fig. 263) are distinguished by the shell 
or box-like covering that envelops them. The upper part 
forms the carapace, r, the lower the plastron, //, the two 
constituting a covering into which the head, tail, and limbs 
can be more or less withdrawn. The generally arched 
carapace is formed by the greatly expanding ribs, these 
and the vertebrae being fixed and immovable. The plas- 
tron is generally considered a greatly expanded sternum.* 
The outer surface of the shell is made up of scales or 
plates, or a leathery substance, as in the case of the soft- 
shell tortoise. The jaws are toothless, being armed with a 
horny beak, as in the birds. The eyes have three lids ; 

* Some naturalists consider it a dermic growth. 



TRUE REPTILES. 



219 




Fig. 263. — Skeleton of the tortoise, from below. /, joints of the backbone 
grown together ; r, ribs formed into a solid cover ; sh, shoulder-bones ; 
h y hip-bones covered by carapace, which has grown over them ; pi, plas- 
tron, or under cover. 

the limbs are adapted to aquatic or terrestrial life, as the 
case may be. About forty species are known in North 
America, north of Mexico. 

Marine Turtles {Cheloniidce). — This family has a 
wide distribution in warm and tropical seas ; five spe- 
cies are known. 
The leather tur- 
tle, or Sphargis 
(Fig. 264), is 
the rarest and 
largest known. 
The shell is a 
thick, leathery 
skin, composed 
of six longitudi- 
nal plates, form- 
ing raised ridges. 




Fig. 264. — Leather turtle (Sphargis). 



220 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 




Fig. 265. — Green turtle. 



The eye-openings are placed vertically. They attain a 
length of eight feet, and a weight of twelve hundred 
pounds.* The loggerhead \ is nearly as large. Its shell 

is made up of 
scales. They 
breed upon 
Loggerhead 
Key, Florida, 
and other lo- 
calities, bury- 
ing their eggs 
in the sand, 
leaving the sun 
to hatch them. 
The digging 
and covering is 
done by the hind-flippers. The green turtle (Fig. 265) 
is somewhat similar, though more delicate, the head and 
flippers smaller. They feed upon algae, particularly Zos- 
tera ?narina. The hawkbill % (Fig. 266) is distinguished 

* The gigantic extinct Protostega gigas was allied to the Sphargis. 
It measured seventeen feet between the fore-arms or flippers, and 
was remarkable for the rudimentary character of the bones in the 
adult. 

f The loggerhead is extremely powerful, and I have found it diffi- 
cult to turn one with the help of two men. By seizing them by the 
shell just over the head I have been carried a long distance in the 
water at a rapid rate. The steeds thus experimented upon were kept 
in an inclosure half a mile long and eight feet deep, and when asleep 
on the bottom could generally be caught by diving. Owing to their 
sluggish natures they often fall a prey to sharks to the extent of their 
flippers. I have caught them in the Gulf Stream with these organs 
entirely bitten off. 

\ Though the hawkbill is a vegetable feeder as a rule, they some- 
times attack the Physalia (Fig. 19). One, two feet long, was found by 
the author floating on the surface, insensible, its head covered by the 
blue tentacles. By scraping them off with a knife the turtle recovered, 
and was kept as a pet for a long time. 



TRUE REPTILES. 221 

by its more elegant shape, hooked bill, and large scales, 
having, like all the others, long, fin-like nippers. 

Value.— The scales 
of the hawkbill are 
greatly valued in com- 
merce. Oil from the 
green turtle's eggs is 
used in dressing leath- 
er, and in the manufac- 
ture of soap. The eggs 
are not the luxuries gen- 
erally supposed, and are 
best when immature, 
and dried in the sun. 




Fig. 266.— Hawkbill turtle. 



In the soft - shelled turtles ( Trionychidce) the body is 
flat and circular, the shell being supple, like rubber or 
leather. They are carnivorous, and one species is common 
in the St. John's and other rivers of Florida and the South- 
ern States. The American species are generally one foot in 
length, but East Indian specimens have been caught weigh- 
ing two hundred and forty pounds. Allied are the snap- 
ping-turtles (Chelydidce), forty- four species of which are 
known. The shell is elevated in front and low behind ; 
the head large, and jaws strongly hooked, the neck long 
and snake-like. They attain a length of five feet, and are 
the most ferocious of their kind. The three American 
species range from Florida to Canada. The eggs are 
spherical, and deposited in the ground. 

The land turtles (Testudinidce) have high, arched 
shells, a broad sternum, and elevate the body in walking, 
instead of dragging it along. One hundred and twenty-six 
species are known. The terrapin, painted, spotted, and 
box turtles are familiar American forms. The latter are 
remarkable in that the plastron is composed of two parts, 
movable upon a single axis, so that the soft parts of the 
animal can be completely boxed in. They are found in 
dry woods, and attain a great age. 



222 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

Note. — The most remarkable land tortoise is the Testudo nigra, or 
elephant turtle, of the Galapagos Islands. They attain a length of six 
feet, and eight men can barely lift the largest. They feed upon the 
cactus, and their paths from the springs can be seen all over the islands. 
Though large and clumsy, they can travel eight miles in three days. 
The eggs are spherical, and larger than a hen's egg. They are either 
buried in the sand or dropped among the rocks. During the breeding- 
season the male utters a hoarse roar or bellow. They are valued for 
their flesh and oil. The Colossochelys is an extinct land tortoise of the 
Tertiary period, found in India. They were twenty feet in length, 
the shell being twelve feet long and six feet high, and would serve as a 
covering for six or seven men. 

Order IV (Rhynchocep/ialia) . — This order is represented 
by a single animal — the Sphenodon punctatus, or Hatter ia, of 
New Zealand. Its general appearance is like the iguana, 
having a similar row of dorsal spines. It attains a length 
of three feet, and forms a burrow, lining it with grass, 
that is also occupied by three species of birds — petrels, 
etc. The lizard occupies one side of the nest and the 
birds the other. It is nocturnal in its habits, and lives to 
some extent upon the food the birds bring in to their 
young. 

Order V. Crocodiles (Crocodi/ia). General Charac- 
teristics. — The crocodiles and alligators form the highest 
order of existing reptiles. The brain and heart closely 
resemble those of the birds. Their skin is covered with 
bony plates, and the teeth are lodged in separate sockets ; 
the nostrils can be closed, and the feet are partly webbed.- 
They lay twenty or thirty eggs, that are buried in the sand' 
and hatched by the sun. 

Alligators (Alligatoridce).— The alligators,* of which 
ten species are known, are distinguished by having both 

* Their nests are sometimes in the sand or in mounds of decayed 
vegetation. In the colder months they hibernate in the mud. In 
Nicaragua they have been known to seize human beings, pigs, and 
even horses, often drifting down upon their prey, their bodies resem- 
bling submerged logs. Their voice is a loud bellow like that of a bull. 



TRUE REPTILES. 2 2$ 

large front teeth as well as the canines fit into pits in 
the upper jaw. They are common in the Southern Unit- 
ed States and tropical America, attaining a length of 
eighteen feet. 

Value. — Skin as leather, oil, and musk. 

Crocodiles {Crocodilidcz). — These reptiles are found 
in the rivers and marshes of nearly all tropical countries. 
The lower canine teeth fit into notches in the upper jaw, 
instead of pits. The muzzle is sharp and narrow. The 
hind-legs have a fringe of compressed scales behind, and 
the toes are webbed nearly to the tip. Twelve species 
are known. A crocodile {Crocodilus acutus) (Fig. 267) is, 




Fig. 267.— Head of Florida crocodile {Crocodilus acutus), from life. 

though not generally known, quite common in the vicinity 
of Biscayne Bay, Florida, and differs much from the alli- 
gator in appearance and habits, living in salt marshes as 
well as fresh, and being more or less marine.* 

* The crocodile shown in Fig. 267 was fourteen and a half feet in 
length, and was shot after being followed three successive winters. 
The specimen is now in the Museum of Natural History, Central Park. 
When shot and speared it towed the boat for some distance, and made 
a desperate resistance, finally diving into a hole in the bottom. Its tail 
protruding, a rope was fastened to it, and tied to a bent tree, and the 
following morning the monster was found swinging partly in the air, 



224 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

In the breeding-season the female utters a bark like a 
dog. The eggs, somewhat resembling those of a goose, 
are deposited among leaves in heaps, and when hatched 
the young are led away by the mother and fed upon 
masticated food. The India crocodiles in the dry sea- 
son hibernate in the mud, which hardens about them. 
A tent pitched unwittingly over such a case was once 
overthrown by the awakening hibernator. Allied are 
the long-nosed crocodiles (Gavialidce), three species of 
which are known, inhabiting the Ganges and rivers of 
Borneo and North Africa. They attain a length of thirty 
feet. 

Value. — The teeth, flesh, hide, and oil, are all valued. 

Specimens for Study. — In the spring months the eggs of 
frogs and toads can be found in pools, and should be 
placed in an aquarium or some vessel, and the changes 
watched from day to day. In this way the history of the 
animal can be followed from the egg to the adult, and the 
habits, etc., observed. Eggs hardened in alcohol can be 
cut into sections and examined. The simple skeleton of 
the frog or toad affords an excellent object for study, and 
should be prepared, the bones labeled and compared with 
those of allied and higher forms, and the points of differ- 
ence noted. Collections of the fauna of a neighborhood 
or country are always valuable, and should comprise the 
eggs, tadpoles in all stages up to the adult, preserved in 
alcohol, and marked with locality, name, sex, etc. A book 
of reference should also be kept, in which notes, observa- 
tions, and sketches should be entered. 

and dispatched. A smaller specimen, that was taken into the boat and 
supposed to be dead, suddenly recovered, upsetting it, and throwing 
the occupants into the water. The animals are extremely wily, and 
capture birds by jerking them under water by the legs ; and, to show 
their marine habits, specimens have been seen on the reef four miles 
from land. 



BIRDS. 



225 



Works on Reptiles for further reference. 

" Smithsonian Reports " ; " Tropical Nature," Wallace ; " List of 
Reptiles and Batrachians near Springfield, Massachusetts," Allen ; 
Holbrook's " Herpetology of North America " ; Agassiz, " Embryology 
of Turtles," in "Contributions to Natural History of the United 
States " ; " Check List of North American Reptiles and Batrachians," 
E. D. Cope ; " Serpents," "Popular Science Monthly," vol. iv. 

Class VI. — Birds (Avcs). 

General Characteristics. — From the reptiles we pass to 
the birds, that may be characterized as warm-blooded 
feathered Vertebrates, having the fore-limbs adapted for 
flight, the jaws inclosed in horny beaks, and the bones 
hollow. 

Skeleton. — In examining the skeleton of a bird (Fig, 
268), we first notice its extreme lightness. This is due to 
the fact that many of the bones that are filled with mar- 
row in other animals are in the birds hollow air-chambers. 
The skull-bones in the adult bird form a single piece, and 
except in certain extinct forms (Fig. 274) the jaws are 
toothless and inclosed in horny cases called beaks. The 
lower jaw is not joined directly to the skull as in man, but to 
a quadrate bone (Fig. 268, a), as in the reptiles and batra- 
chians. The neck, consisting of from nine to twenty-four 
vertebrae, is extremely long and flexible, so that the bird 
can trim its feathers on any part of the body ; a knot can 
almost be tied in the neck of the flamingo. The (dorsal) 
vertebrse, from six to ten in number, are firmly joined 
(anchylosed) in the flying birds ; but in the non-fliers, as 
the emu and ostrich, they are movable one upon another. 
The vertebrse between the dorsal and those constituting 
the tail (caudal) are joined, forming a single bone called 
the sacrum, which, joined with the innominate bones, forms 
the pelvic arch to which is attached the first bone of the 
leg or thigh (Fig. 268, th). To the thigh or femur is at- 
tached the tibia, to which a small fibula is joined. The 



226 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



position of the knee is seen at k j then follows the foot, /, 
or tarso-metatarsus, that in wading birds is very long, and 
in powerful fliers, as the man-of-war hawk (Fig. 283), very- 
short. The heel, h y is far from the ground, and to the 
foot-bone are attached the two, four, or five toes, as the 




Fig. 268. — Skeleton of a sparrow. a, quadrate bone, peculiar to reptiles 
and birds and some amphibia ; d, breast-bone ; m, merry-thought or 
collar-bone ; c, coracoid bone, over which the tendon works to pull up 
the wing ; fi, plowshare-bone, on which the tail grows. Wing-bones : 
a, upper arm ; e, elbow ; fa, fore-arm ; w, wrist ; t, thumb ; ha, hand. 
Leg-bones : M, thigh-bone ; k, knee ; /, lower part of leg ; h, heel ; /*, 
foot. 



case may be, that are armed with scratching or clinging 
claws that extend in different directions. Generally there 
are three before and one behind, as in Fig. 268 ; others 
have two before and two behind, or, as in the swifts, all 
four extend to the front. To prevent birds from falling 
while asleep on a perch, there is a wonderful arrangement 



BIRDS. 



227 



of the muscles, a number extending down the leg from the 
pelvis to the outside of the knee, then winding around and 
blending with the principal muscles of the toes. When 
the bird settles in roosting, the leg is bent upon the thigh, 
the weight of the bird acting as a lever that tautens the 
muscles and draws the toes and claws tightly about the 
limb or roost ; thus the bird can sleep while standing upon 
one leg without fear of falling, being held fast by the 
weight of its body. The tail or caudal vertebrae are mov- 
able to some extent and end in the plowshare-bone, p, 
that supports the large quill-feathers of the tail. On the 
under portion of the skeleton we note the sternum, b, or 
breast-bone, to which the wing-moving muscles are at- 
tached. In the flying birds, as Fig. 268, it is keeled and 
has a sharp edge, thus offering a greater surface of attach- 
ment, but in birds like the ostrich the keel is absent. 
Above the sternum are the ribs, that vary in number from 
seven to eleven pairs. In front of the sternum the clavicles 
join and form a V-shaped bone called the lucky or collar 
bone (Fig. 268, m). The coracoid bone over which the 
tendon works to pull up the wing, is seen at c, and this 
and the scapula and clavicle constitute the " pectoral arch " 
to which the humerus, a, or first bone of the wing, is at- 
tached. The position of the elbow is seen at e ; then fol- 
lows the fore-arm (ulna and radius), /#. The position of 
the wrist is shown at w ; then follow the carpal and meta- 
carpal bones, which are joined at the extremities. At the 
upper end of the metacarpal bones there is a rudimentary 
thumb (Fig. 268, t). It has a single joint and supports 
what is called the false wing. The end of the wing (Fig. 
268, ha) corresponds to the hand, and three rudimentary 
fingers are generally observed, that correspond to the first 
and third fingers of the human hand. The fingers only in 
rare cases are clawed, and the arm, that in other animals is 
used for digging, clinging, or crawling, is now only used to 
propel the bird through the air or water as the case may be. 



228 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

Digestion. — As the birds have no teeth, they either 
swallow their food entire or tear it with the bill or claws. 
The digestive organs are shown in Fig. 269, 1. The food 
passes down the gullet and lodges in the crop, <r, that is 
easily felt in chickens that have gorged themselves with 
corn. From here it passes to the true stomach just be- 
low, and is brought in contact with a secretion called 
gastric juice. From here it passes to the gizzard, g, that 
to all intents and purposes is an internal set of teeth or 
grinders, being a muscular sac with a hard, horny lining 
in which the grain or other food is completely ground to 
a pulp. To assist in this operation chickens and other 
grain-eating birds swallow gravel and pebbles. In the 
flesh-eaters, as the eagles, the coat of the gizzard is not so 
thick. The experiment has been tried of feeding gulls on 
grain,* and it was found that the gizzard assumed the ap- 
pearance and functions of that of true grain-eaters. When 
the food is thoroughly ground, that which is not absorbed 
as fuel for the system enters the small intestine and is 
finally rejected. 

Circulation. — In the birds we meet for the first time a 
warm-blooded animal, the mean temperature of the blood, 
which is red, being no° or 112 . This is due to the fact 
that the birds are extremely active, and that the blood is 
not only aerated in the lungs, but in the air-sacs of the 
various parts of the body. Again, the feathers are poor 
conductors of heat, and tend to keep up the body tempera- 
ture. The heart is now four-chambered, composed of two 
auricles and two ventricles. In circulating, the venous 
blood enters the right auricle, flowing from here to the 
right ventricle, from which it passes through the pul- 
monic artery to the lungs. Here it changes into arterial 
blood, passes to the left auricle, then to the left ventricle, 

* A gull, Larus, at the Shetland Islands, lives on grain in the sum- 
mer and fish in the winter, a habit that must cause a yearly physical 
change. 



BIRDS. 



229 




that sends it 
through the 
great aorta in- 
to numerous 
branches that 
lead all over 
the body. 

Respiration. 
—The breath- 
ing organs are 
shown in Fig. 
269, /, /. The 
lungs, /, /, are 
two in number, 
spongy in con- 
sistency, and 
are attached to 
the walls of the 
cavity in which 
they are placed. 

The large air-passages of the lungs end in air-sacs, that 
in turn connect with the cavities of the bones, so that air 
taken in passes down the trachea, /, enters the lungs, /, /, 
aerating the blood there, also passing into the 
air-sacs and penetrating the hol- 
low bones in every part of the body ; 
thus the bird can alter its specific 
gravity at will. The air-sacs are 
nine in number ; two are placed in 
the abdomen, four in the thorax, 
and three near the wish-bone. 

Nervous System. — The brain 
(Fig. 270, 1) is larger than in the 
reptiles, and has no convolutions. 

Covering. — The birds differ from all other animals in 
being covered with feathers (Fig. 271), that are modified 



Fig. 269. — Parts of a bird. 1, digestive apparatus ; 
c, crop ; g, gizzard ; t, trachea ; b, d, bronchial 
tubes ; /, /, lungs ; 2, bones of the wings. 




z 

Fig. 270. — 1, Brain of a 
bird ; 2, eye, showing nic- 
titating membrane. 



230 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



scales or hairs ; developed, like them, in sacs in the skin. 
They afford protection to the bird, determine its contour 
or shape, and are the means of enabling it to soar in the 
air, the long pinions being arranged to offer the greatest 




Fig. 271. — Sparrow, showing the skeleton (Fig. 268) clothed in flesh, and 
the graceful outline produced by the coat of feathers. 



resistance. Taking a goose-feather (Fig. 272) as an ex- 
ample, we find that it is composed of several parts. The 
hollow, horny quill, 1, rests in a sac ; this leads to the 
shaft, 2, which is horny, grooved, and filled with a sub- 
stance resembling wood-pith. From the sides of the shaft 
spring the barbs, 3, that are so delicate that it would nat- 



BIRDS. 



231 



urally be assumed that under the vigorous beating of the 
wing they would form little, if any, resistance. There is, 
however, a special arrangement, shown in Fig. 273, by 
which each barb is locked with its fellow by little second- 
ary branches called barbules, that are generally serrated 
and provided with hooks, and in this way a strong surface 

is presented to the wind. Plumes, as those 

of the ostrich, are 

feathers without 

barbules. Down 

is feathers in 

which the barbs 

are extremely 

soft and free. 

The feathers 

shed water by 

being oiled with 

a secretion the 

birds take from 

an oil-gland near 

the tail. After 

the reproductive 

season, birds gen- 
erally moult or 

shed their feath- 
ers. Some birds, 

as the ptarmigan, 

times a year. 
Senses. — The eyes of some birds are remarkably pierc- 
ing, and their vision extremely acute. All possess a third 
eyelid or nictitating membrane (Fig. 270, 2) that covers and 
protects the ball of the eye, so that eagles can gaze directly 
at the sun without blinking. The eyes of these birds and 
their allies are also provided with a ring of hard plates that 
forms an apparatus by which the bird can adjust its sight 
to objects near at hand or at a distance. The penguin, 





Fig. 272. — Parts 
of a feather. 
1, quill ; 2, 
shaft ; 3, 3, 
vane or barbs; 
4, accessory 
plume. 



Fig. 273. — Barb from a 
goose - quill, showing 1 
the hooklets highly- 
magnified. 

do this two or three 



232 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



that passes so much of its time under water, has a similar 
arrangement by which it is enabled to see equally well in 
either element. There is, as a rule, no external ear. The 
nostrils are slits situated in the upper portion of the man- 
dibles, and are protected with bristles or scales. The 
songs of birds constitute their language, this being par- 
ticularly evident in the common fowl. The sounds made 
when a hawk approaches, when an egg has been laid, 
when calling their young, and the " song " on warm days 
when in search of food, are all different expressions of 
totally different emotions. The songs of birds have 
been set to music by Mr. X. Clarke (see " American Natu- 
ralist," vol. xiii, page 12). 

Development. — All birds are oviparous. The eggs are 
either hatched by the male or female, or both, or by the 
sun (gulls), or artificial heat (brush-turkey). The young 
are generally provided with a calcareous knob upon their 
soft bill, as in some reptiles, with which they break the 
egg and escape. Some are at first helpless, and have to 
be fed, while others run (chickens) or fly (maleo) imme- 
diately upon their escape. About seven hundred species 
of birds are found in North America north of Mexico, and 
in all about eight thousand distinct species are known 
throughout the world, of which the following are some of 
the most typical and interesting examples : 

Sub-Class I. — Lizard-tailed Birds (Saururce). 

The first and lowest forms of birds were extremely 
reptilian in their characteristics. The Archceopterix is a 
remarkable fossil form found in the Jurassic slates at 
Sohenhofen, Germany. It attained the size of a crow ; 
the beaks were armed with conical teeth ; the tail was 
formed by a long extension of the vertebrae, the feathers 
growing out upon the sides, and the wings were bird-like. 
They are all extinct. 



TOOTHED BIRDS. 



233 




Sub-Class II. — Toothed Birds (Odontornithes). 

These strange fossil birds 
were discovered in the creta- 
ceous beds of this country by 
Professor Marsh. Their rep- 
tilian and fish-like characteris- 
tics are seen in the vertebras, 
which are biconcave. The jaws, 
long and slender, were armed 
with teeth (Fig. 274) placed in 
sockets as are those of the croc- 
odile. Some were fliers and oth- 
ers had rudimentary wings. The 
Hesperornis was a large aquatic 
bird about six feet in height. 
Its jaws were supplied with 
teeth set in grooves, the wings 
were useless and rudimentary, 
while the feet were like those 



FlG. 274. — Bird with teeth, showing jaw with teeth, the sockets, a tooth 
enlarged, and section of the backbone. (After Marsh.) 



234 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



of modern divers, so that the bird has been termed a 
carnivorous, swimming ostrich. They are all extinct. 

Sub-Class III. — Flat-breasted Birds {Ratitd). 

General Characteristics. — Birds with rudimentary, use- 
less wings ; the sternum, or breast-bone, not keeled ; legs 
powerful, and adapted for running. 

The Apterix (Apterygida), or "kiwi-kiwi" (Fig. 275), 
is confined to New Zealand. It attains a height of two 




;*** ' 



Fig. 275. — The Apteryx, a nocturnal ground-bird. 



feet, is tailless, and the wings are rudimentary. The bill 
is long, the nostrils placed at its tip. The feathers are 
brown and hair-like. It is nocturnal ; the nest or burrow 
is generally placed in the ground at the root of a tree ; 



FLAT-BREASTED BIRDS. 



235 



a single egg being deposited, that equals one fourth the 
weight of the bird. The feet are powerful and adapted 
for scratching.* A remarkable extinct form of this class 
is the gigantic moa, of 
New Zealand (Fig. 276), 
that lived during the 
time of the Maoris. The 
largest (Dinornis gigan- 
tetis) attained a height 
of nearly ten feet. The 
limbs and bones were 
larger than those of an 
ox. The Alpyornis, an 
extinct bird of Mada- 
gascar, was an allied 
form, and supposed by 
many to be the roc of 
the Arabian tales. Re- 
mains of its eggs show 
one to have been equal 
to one hundred and fifty 
hen's eggs. 

Ostrich (Struthio- 
nidce). — This family is 
represented in South 
America by the Rhea 

(Rhea Americana). It is about three and a half feet in 
height, and differs from the ostrich in the possession of 
three toes. The head and neck are covered with downy 
gray feathers, those of the tail being absent. They live in 
flocks on the pampas. The male excavates the nest, and 
afterward sits upon the eggs, and, according to some au- 
thorities, collects them when they are left scattered about 

* It is a curious fact that when sleeping these birds endeavor to 
put the head under the wing, though the latter is entirely useless as 
such a protection. 




Fig. 276. — Wingless birds of New Zea- 
land. The giant moa {Palapteryx) 
and the tiny apteryx. The moa is no 
longer to be found alive. 



236 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

by the hen. During this time they are extremely fierce. 
They readily take to the water and swim well. The 
young differ in color from the parents. 

The Emeu (Dromaius Nova Hollandice) is an allied 
form from Australia, its feathers resembling a mat of 
long black hair. The wings are rudimentary, the nos- 
trils are not far from the tip of the upper mandible, and 
the three toes are of equal length. They attain a height 
of seven feet. As with the rhea, the male attends to the 
eggs. The young at first have a protective marking, of 
black stripes upon a white ground. 

The Cassowary {Casuarius galeatus), found in the 
Island of Ceram and in the Indian Archipelago, also has 
three toes, but of unequal length, and attains a height 
of five feet or more. The body is covered with long, 
black, hair-like feathers, the wings being represented by 
five stiff, cylindrical shafts, that are often used as a de- 
fense. The nostrils are placed near the middle of the 
upper mandible, and the head is ornamented by a large, 
horny helmet. The eggs are protected by their grayish- 
green color. 

The Ostrich (Struthio camdus) * is the largest living 
bird, attaining a height of eight feet. It is found in the 
deserts of Africa and Arabia. The legs are extremely 

* The general color is black and gray, the tail and wing feath- 
ers being of great size and beauty. The nest is a mere hollow in the 
sand, in which the eggs, about thirty, are laid, each one equaling 
about two dozen hen's eggs, and weighing about three pounds each ; in 
the day-time being kept warm by the sun, and at night covered by 
the male. The eggs upon the outer row are often eaten by the old 
and young birds. Their speed is greater than that of the fleetest 
horse. In running, the wings are spread out (Fig. 277), and per- 
haps used as sails. Their legs are also their protection in close quar- 
ters. Edward Verreaux, the French naturalist, saw a native instantly 
killed by a kick from one. Their food consists of herbage of all 
kinds, while stones and various strange articles are swallowed to aid 
digestion. 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 



237 



powerful, and provided with only two toes, the inner one 
being twice as long as the outer. 



Value. — The oil, skin (leather), and feathers are all used, 
triches are now farmed in this country for their feathers. 



Os- 




Fig. 277. — Ostrich (Struthio camelus) running at full speed. 



Sub-Class IV. — Keel-breasted Birds {Carinatce). 

General Characteristics. — All the rest of the birds are 
included in this class. They are distinguished by a keeled 
sternum or breastbone, the fore-limbs in the higher forms 
being developed as organs of flight. 

Order I. Penguins (Sp/ienisci) . — The Penguins (Fig. 
278) are confined to the Antarctic region, and are remark- 
ably fish-like in their habits. The wings are small, and cov- 
ered with scale-like feathers, and are used, as well as their 
webbed feet, as paddles. The king-penguin {Aptenodytes 
longirostris) is one of the largest, attaining a height of three 



2 3 8 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



and a half feet, colored dark above, the breast white, a 
black patch in front being surrounded by two narrow 
bands of bright orange-yellow. They congregate in bands, 
and from a distance appear like soldiers marching upon 
the sands. On Marion and other islands they breed 
in vast numbers, living in well-organized communities.* 




Fig. 278. — Albatrosses and penguins. 



* The cities or rookeries of the king-penguin are extremely inter- 
esting. They are generally upon flat ground, and divided by mound- 
like ridges into two irregular portions. In the Lirger stand the old 
birds, their beaks pointing upward, not outward, as generally figured in 
books. The smaller area is the nursery, and in it, crowded together, 
are the young, and breeding pairs, that are exceedingly ferocious, fiercely 
attacking young intruding males, and sometimes killing them. The 
young are curious-looking creatures, covered partly with down and 
feathers, giving them a grotesque appearance. The breeders carry the 
single egg about with them in a pouch between the legs for seven 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 



239 



They deposit one egg, that, instead of being placed upon 
the rocks, is held in a pouch until hatched. During this 
time they hop along, the feet being close together to hold 
the egg in ; at other times, when not holding the egg, they 
walk like other birds. Allied is the jackass -penguin 
(Sp/iem'scus Magellanicus) of the Cape of Good Hope and 
Falkland Islands. The former makes nests for its eggs 
in the rocks, of stones and shells of balanus that are washed 
ashore. 

The rock-hopper penguin * (Eudyptes saltator) is found 
in vast rookeries at Inaccessible Island. From the sides 
of the head projects backward, like a quill-pen, a tuft of 
sulphur-yellow plumes. In the water the wings are used 
as fins. The nests are shallow depressions, containing 
two greenish-white eggs, that are incubated by both male 
and female. 

Value. — Oil, and the skin as fur. At Heard Island the skins are 
used as fuel in the winter. 

Order II. Pygopodes. General Characteristics. — The 
birds of this order are aquatic, some with rudimentary 
wings, that are used almost as fins, and covered with scale- 
weeks, when the young appear, and during this time are probably fed 
by the males. The egg is greenish-white and pointed at the end. 

* The rookeries of the rock -hoppers at Inaccessible Island are of 
vast extent, covering one quarter of the island, and giving shelter to 
perhaps five hundred thousand birds, and formed in the vast fields 
of tussock-grass, that is worn out into streets, alleys, and lanes, from 
three to five feet in width. Along these streets the nests of the pen- 
guins are placed ; and so fierce are they, and so vast their numbers, 
that a passage through the bird-city is attended by the greatest danger. 
From the sea to the rookery a roadway has been worn smooth by the 
feet of the birds, and up this highway they are seen passing in compa- 
nies and bands. In the water, their motions are similar to those of a 
porpoise, leaping from it in a like manner. They are remarkable for 
their migrations. They leave Inaccessible Island April 15th ; the 
males return the last of July, the females August 12th. Where they 
go is not known, and, as there are no landmarks, their return is a won- 
derful example of instinct, and only comparable to that of the seals. 



240 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



like feathers. The bill is flattened and knife-like, the feet 
webbed, and placed so far back that upon shore the birds 
stand erect. The bones of this and the preceding order 
are solid. 

Auk (Alcida). — The great auk* (Alca impennis) (Fig. 
279) is remarkable as having become extinct since 1870, 
and hardly seventy perfect specimens are known in the 
world. Its length was about three feet, that of the wings 
four inches. The bill was powerful, wings small, the back 
black and breast white. They laid a single egg, about as 

large as that of a swan, 
spotted with small, irregu- 
lar blotches. The little 
auk (Simorhynchus pusillus), 
common in the Arctic re- 
gions, is the smallest spe- 
cies known, being only sev- 
en inches in length. They 
lay on the ice or rocks a 
small, bluish - white egg. 
Their cry is Roit-tet-tet-iet- 
tet, continually repeated. 
They are found in large 
numbers in northern Nor- 
way. The Guillemots ( Urid) 
(Fig. 280, 5), six species of 
which are known in the 
Arctic waters, have long, straight, pointed, conical bills. 
The general color is dirty black. They breed in vast 
quantities on inaccessible cliffs, always facing the sea. A 
single egg is laid, and, according to Sir John Richardson, 

* Three hundred years ago they were caught by the boat-load by 
the early fishermen, and now the preserved specimens are so rare that 
$650 was paid for one in the Museum of Natural History, New York. 
It formerly ranged the coast of Maine, where its bones are now some- 
times found in the shell-heaps. 




Fig. 279. — Great, auk, a bird that has 
become extinct within fourteen 
years. 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 



241 



the mother of the British guillemot takes the young on its 
back and carries it to sea on the first voyage. Under 
water the wings are used as in flying. Allied are the 
Puffi,ns {Fratercula) (Fig. 280, 4), that have short, deep, 




Fig. 280. — A group of sea-birds. 1, cormorant ; 2, black-winged tern ; 3, 
gulls ; 4, puffins ; 5, guillemots. 



wedge-shaped bills. The common puffin, or sea-parrot 
(F. Arctica), is common on the North Atlantic coast, at- 
taining a length of thirteen and a half inches. Their 
nests are tunnels in the ground, at the extremity of which 
11 



242 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



the single egg is placed, 
family of rabbits. 



The nest is often occupied by a 



Value. — Auk and puffin leather, oil, and fur. 

Loons (Colymbidce). — The great northern diver or loon 
(C. torquatus) is a familiar example, ranging throughout 
the whole of North America. They dive with great skill, 
and swim under water a quarter of a mile, faster than a 
man can row ; are good fliers, but move slowly on land. 
The Grebes {Podicipitidce) are abundant in northern 
America, and common in many countries ; they are dis- 
tinguished by the structure of their feet ; the membrane, 
instead of uniting the toes, being 
cleft nearly to the base of the lat- 
ter, forming membranous margins 
(Fig. 281). The bill is long and 
slender. The crested grebe (P. 
cristatus) attains the length of about 
twenty-four inches, and extent of 
wings thirty-four. The head is or- 
namented with a large double crest 
of brown feathers. They frequent 
the fresh-water lakes and streams, 
and are powerful swimmers, often 
remaining under water with the tip 
of the bill exposed when pursued. 
The nest is formed of rushes in the 
water, and often floats about. The eggs number from 
two to seven, and the young follow the mother as soon as 
hatched, often taking refuge upon her back. 

Note. — The nest of the Castanean grebe (P. cornutus), according 
to Fouray, is a perfect raft, and is paddled about by the mother. 

The eared, horned, Western, and red-necked grebes are 
American species. 

Value. — Skin as fur, muffs, etc= 




Fig. 281. — Foot of grebe 
(Podiceps), showing 
swimming membrane 
on each toe. 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 243 

Order III. Longipennes (Long-winged'). General 
Characteristics. — This order includes the birds with ex- 
tremely long, slender, and pointed wings, generally aquatic 
but not submarine swimmers. They have wondrous pow- 
ers of flight, and long, slender, and compressed bills ; the 
anterior toes webbed. 

The Petrels (Procellariidce) are aquatic swimming 
birds rarely approaching the shore, except to breed. The 
bill is complicated, seemingly composed of several parts, 
the nostrils opening from distinct tubes. The stormy 
petrel,* or Mother Carey's chicken (P. pelagica) y is a typi- 
cal form. 

The Giant Petrel (Ossifraga gigantea), of the South- 
ern Ocean, is the largest. They and their large allies prey 
upon young gulls. Among the Antarctic ice is found the 
snow-white petrel (Pagodroma nivea). 

Note. — About Kerguelen's Land the petrels invariably burrow in 
the ground, those of the genus Oestrelata forming burrows six inches 
in diameter, ending in a round chamber in which is placed the nest. 
The solitary petrel forms a burrow ten feet long. The diving petrels 
(Pelecanoides) also burrow and are wonderful divers, unlike others of 
the tribe. 

The Prions are small, gray, petrel-like birds, with 
boat-shaped bills, that honey-comb the ground at Kergue- 
len's Land with their nests. 

The Shear- Waters (Puffimts) somewhat resemble 
the petrels. The wandering shear-water is common on 
the Atlantic coast, and attains the length of twenty inches, 
the wing fourteen inches. The Antarctic species burrow, 
the peat-beds at Tristan da Cunha being entirely honey- 
combed by them. The European species breed on the 
rocks and in rabbit-burrows. The largest member of 
the family is the albatross (Fig. 278), common in the 

* Petrels when placed upon the deck of a vessel have great difficulty 
in rising. 



244 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

Southern Ocean. They are powerful fliers, rarely ap- 
proaching the shore except to breed. The wings spread 
often twelve or fifteen feet ; the bill is extremely power- 
ful, curved, and acute ; the nostrils form two tubes at the 
base of the upper mandible. 

The Wandering Albatross {Diomedea exulans). The 
male is snow-white, except the tail, which is dark ; the 
females are sprinkled with gray, and the young are dark 
gray. At Marion Island they breed in great numbers, 
seeming to lose the power of flight during the breeding- 
season. The nest is made up of tufts of grass and moss, 
forming a mound one foot and a half in diameter at the 
top. The one egg is about five inches long, with red 
specks at the large end, and does not rest in the nest, but 
is held in a pouch in the skin. 

The Mollymauk (Z>. culminata) is about the size of a 
goose. The nest is a cylindrical pile of grass and clay, 
about fourteen inches in diameter and twelve in height, 
hollow on top, the edges overhanging so that they form 
good seats when deserted. The single egg is also held in 
a pouch. These pillar-like nests are also found in the 
streets of the penguin cities, the ground beneath them in 
turn being burrowed by the holes of prions and puffins. 
At Tristan da Cunha, the albatross-nests are found in a 
dead crater 8,000 feet above the sea. Their food is gen- 
erally fish. 

Value. — The feathers are used for various purposes, the bones of 
the great albatross as pipe-stems, the skin of the feet as purses and 
pouches. The oil of the petrel is used for illumination in the Azores. 
Guano is obtained from their resorts. 

The Gulls {Stercorariidcs) are found in northern and 
southern seas. The general color is various shades of 
white and black ; the bill is shorter than the head, com- 
pressed, the nostrils not forming tubes but slits ; the feet 
webbed, and adapted for swimming. They are large and 
buoyant and do not dive, though many plunge completely 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 



245 



under water after their prey (Fig. 280, 3). The common 
tern (Fig. 280, 2) {Sterna hirundo) is found in Europe and 
North America. The bill is long, slender, and pointed, 
the tail long and forked. The nest is a mere depression in 
the sand, three spotted eggs being laid in each. During 
the day the sun warms them, the mother performing her 
office only at night. The roseate tern is a familiar form. 

The Noddy Terns (Anons stolidus) have a wide geo- 
graphical range. They are mild and beautiful creatures. 
At Tortugas they erect rude nests composed of twigs of 
bay-cedar dropped together upon the bushes, upon the 
top of which is laid the single, nearly white egg. At St. 
Paul's Rocks the noddies build a fanciful nest of sea-weed, 
cemented together and attached to the rock, a lace-like 
fringe hanging down all around. Upon this platform or 
bracket the single egg is placed. 

The Laughing Gull (Zarus atricilla) * is found upon 
the tropical and temperate coasts of North America. 

The Arctic Tern {Sterna macrurd) is the only suc- 
cessful enemy of the skua, pursuing it with extreme ferocity. 
Its eggs are deposited among the stones and mimic the 
lichen-covered pebbles, this protective mimicry being car- 
ried out in the downy young. 

The most powerful of the gull family is the skua (Ster- 
corarius). It has a wide geographical range, the various 
species being found in the Arctic and Antarctic regions 
of various countries. 

The Parasitic Jager, of the Arctic region of Europe 
and North America, follows terns and gulls, forcing them 
to disgorge their prey. 

The Antarctic Skua (S. Antarcticus) has all the qual- 

* At Tortugas they follow the brown pelican, systematically rob- 
bing it. When the latter tosses a fish preparatory to swallowing it, 
the laughing gull with its victorious " Ha-ha ! " alights on its back, leans 
forward and snatches the morsel and flies away, generally to be robbed 
in turn by the man-of-war bird (Fig. 283). 



246 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

ities of the eagle, being a bird of prey. The beak is 
sharp and curved, the claws at the tip of the webbed toes 
are sharp and talon-like. They prey upon the prions and 
other birds, dragging them from their holes, or hunting 
them after the fashion of the hawk. In general color they 
are brown. They are so ferocious as to even attack man.* 
In the penguin-streets of Tristan da Cunha the nests of 
skuas are seen on mounds, surrounded by well-picked 
skeletons of prions. The eggs are large and two in num- 
ber. The northern skua {Lestris parasitica) is equally pred- 
atory, attacking other birds, sucking the eggs of the eider 
and other ducks often to such an extent that they can not 
fly away. It breeds on the unsheltered rocks, forming no 
nest, the eggs, two in number, being per- 
fectly protected by their resemblance to 
the ground. If, however, an enemy ap- 
proaches, the skuas shuffle off as if wound- 
ed, and thus avert the danger. 

Order IV. Steganopodes {foot-cov- 
ered}. General 
Ch a racteristics. — 
The birds of this 
order are aquatic 
and characterized 
by short, partly - 
hidden, completely 
webbed feet, and 
an unfeathered 

pouch beneath the FIG. 282.— Brown pelican (Pelecanus fuscus). 

bill capable in some 

of extraordinary expansion. The tropic birds, gannets, 

darters, and cormorants, are representatives. 

* Professor Moseley states that at Kerguelen's Land and other 
localities they had to beat them off with clubs, and that when a duck 
was shot the skuas would often pounce upon it, so that two shots were 
reauired to obtain a single bird. 




KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 



y A7 



The Pelicans (Pe/ecam'dcs), of which two species are 
known in the United States, are distinguished by their 
long beaks hooked at the end, and enormous pouch de- 
pending from the lower mandible. The brown pelican 
{Pelecanus fuscus) (Fig. 282) is common in the South. 

Value. — The oil of various gulls is used by the Esquimaux as 
lamp-oil. The breast-feathers of gulls are valuable in trade and used 
as " roll-plumes." 

The White 
Pelican {P. 

trachyrhynchus) 
ranges from north- 
ern Florida north- 
ward, and former- 
ly bred about the 
Great Salt Lake. 
They never dive 
for fish, but swim 
along, plunging 
their heads into the 
water, relying upon 

their quickness. They shed their crest in a manner some- 
what similar to the casting of a deer's horns. 

Value. — The brown pelican is eaten at St. Thomas, and the leather 
of the pouch and fur is utilized. 

The Frigate - Birds {Tachypetidce), or man-of-war 
hawks (Fig. 283), are confined to the warmer regions. The 
membrane beneath the throat is a bright vermilion. The 
bill is long, sharp, and hooked at the end, the wings long 
and extremely powerful,* the tail forked. On Ascension 

* At Tortugas, Fla., it was the custom of a number of these birds to 
station themselves over the lighthouse about two thousand yards up, 
during the prevalence of the heaviest gales, and through the glass 
they seemed to rest on the wind, the wings being merely outstretched, 
and no movement being noticed except an occasional pitching down, 




Fig. 283. — Frigate-bird {Tacky 'petes aquild). 



248 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



Island they form nests in the guano-beds, and at Fernando 
do Norhona the nests are built on the edge of high preci- 
pices and contain a single egg. The T. minor, at Raine 









Fig. 284. — Red-headed pochard (Fulzgula), showing position in 
alighting. 



Island, northeast Australia, builds as a nest a platform of 
twigs about eight inches in diameter, raised in the bushes. 

The American spe- 
cies has a strong, musky- 
odor. They follow gulls 
on the Florida reef, forc- 
ing them to disgorge fish. 
Their oil is sometimes 
used in medicine. 

Order V. Ducks 
and Geese (Lamelliros- 
tres). Ducks (A natidce). 
— About fifty-nine spe- 
cies of ducks (Fig. 284) 
are known in North 
America. They are 
swimming birds, and have a wide geographical range, all 




Fig. 285. — Swan swimming, showing 
the web expanded and closed. 



then up. They faced the wind, which tended to blow them up and 
away, but by pitching down slightly they seemed to ride on the gale — 
like a kite — gravity acting as the string. They would retain this posi- 
tion for hours, and it was never attempted except when the wind was 
blowing a gale. 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 



249 



the toes except the hind one being connected by a web 
(Fig. 285). They are distinguished by the bill, which is 
broad and flattened, covered with a tender, sensitive cov- 
ering. The edges of both mandibles are furnished with a 
series of fine, tooth-like plates that interlock and form a 
strainer ; the upper mandible ends in a rounded nail. 

The hooded merganser, eider-duck (Somateria mollis- 
sima), and the Labrador duck (Camptolcemus), are represent- 
atives ; the latter is remarkable as having become extinct 
within a few years. It ranged as far south as New Jersey. 
The wood-ducks (Aix sponsa) are found all over the United 
States, and winter in the South. The nest is occasionally 
placed in hollow trees, in which case they bring the young 
down in their beaks. 

The Kerguelen's Land teal (Q. Eatoni) * is peculiar to 
that country and the Crozet Islands. 

The Canada goose (Branta Canade?isis) is the common 
wild goose of North America. They attain a length of 
about three feet, and migrate south in the winter, flying 
in long lines or triangles, generally led by a drake. They 
nest in timber along streams. The brant, snow, ross, and 
black geese are allied forms. 

The swans are characterized by long, snake-like necks 
that add to the grace and beauty of their appearance. The 
trachea or windpipe is consequently extremely long, espe- 
cially in the trumpeter, in which it enters a cavity in the 
breast-bone, makes a turn, forming a large coil, finally lead- 
ing to the lungs. 

The whistling swan (Cygnus Americanus) ranges over 
North America. 

* In Three Isle Harbor, Kerguelen's Land, Professor Moseley ap- 
proached a flock of these birds to shoot them ; having never seen man 
before, they ran at him in lines, seven in a row, each led by a drake, 
and gathered about him like farm-yard fowl, gazing with apparent aston- 
ishment. When the nests were approached, they fluttered away, as if 
injured, a trick common in many of our birds. 



250 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



Y '^ The black swan 

lHI (C. atratus) (Fig. 

^T 286) of Australia is 

■ ^ a beautiful bird. 

jS They breed in the 




Fig. 286.— Black swan of Australia. 



the time of incuba- 
tion being about 
six weeks. When 
the female leaves 
the nest, the male 
always takes her 
place. 



Value. — The flesh, quills, and feathers, and as game. 




Fig. 287. — The flamingo, a wading bird. 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 



251 



The Flamingo (jPncenicopterid<z) (Fig. 287) is common 
in the warmer portions of America, also southern Europe, 
Asia, and Africa. They connect the swimming with the 
wading birds. 

Value. — Feathers. 

Order VI. Wading Birds {Grallatores). General 
Characteristics. — The birds of this order are characterized 




Fig. 2S8.— A group of wading birds. 1, stilt ; 2, avocet ; 3, peewit ; 4, 
dunlins ; 5, curlew sandpiper ; 6, sanderling ; 7, oyster-catcher ; 8, curlew ; 
9, turnstone. 



by long legs and neck, bill generally long, body com- 
pressed, the wings short and rounded. The rails are run- 
ners, and the cranes essentially wading birds and slow fliers. 

The Cranes (Gruidce) are large birds, the head 
sometimes devoid of feathers, the legs long, the toes not 
webbed, the hinder one being highly elevated. 

The sand-hill crane (Grus Canadensis) is a common 
American form. They attain a length of four feet, and their 



252 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

nests are built on open plains in the West, often six 
thousand feet above the sea. Many winter in Cuba. The 
whooping crane (G. America?ia) attains a length of four 
and a half feet, and is found in the interior from the Gulf 
of Mexico to Minnesota. The demoiselle crane {Balearica) 
is a beautiful species from southern Europe and Africa. 
The head bears a curious, straw-colored brush. The 
South American trumpeter (Cariama) is an interesting 
form found on the elevated plateaus. Allied are the cry- 
ing birds (Aramidce), rails, gallinules, coots, etc. 

The Gallinula gigantea in 1694 lived in the Mascarene 
Islands, but is now extinct. It was a rail six feet in height. 
Another allied form was the Notomis, supposed to be ex- 
tinct, and known up to 1850 only by its fossil bones ; a 
specimen was discovered alive in New Zealand in i860. 
It is now probably extinct. 

Value. — All are valued as game, and the rich feathers of the gal- 
linules for various ornamental purposes. 

Avocets (Rccurvirostridci) (Fig. 288, 2) are distin- 
guished by their long legs and bills, the latter turning up- 
ward. The American avocet (R. Ai7ierica?ia) ranges the 
entire area of North America. Their general length is 
eighteen inches, the wings eight inches. The head and 
neck are colored a reddish brown, the wing-coverts and 
back black, the lower portion white. The nest is formed 
of dry grasses and weeds in the high grass near the water, 
and generally contains four eggs. 

Phalaropes {Phalai'opodidce) have toes with narrow 
lobes or expansions as we have seen in the grebes and 
coots, enabling them to swim and walk over the sea- weed 
far out to sea. Only three species are known, and all 
found in America. 

In the Snipes (Scolopacidce) the bill is elongated and 
soft-skinned. The sexes are generally alike. The Amer- 
ica woodcock (Philo/iela minor) is found in eastern United 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 



253 



States, and other species in Europe, Asia, and Africa. 
They go south in October, return in March, and lay in 
April. The nest is on the ground and formed of leaves. 
The eggs, generally four, are light reddish-yellow in color, 
with red and brown protective markings. The mother- 




FlG. 289. — Ruff {Machetes pugnax). 

birds are noted for their care of the young, and have been 
seen taking one between their legs and flying off at the 
approach of danger. The American or Wilson's snipe 
{Gallinago Wilsoni) is a typical form inhabiting the en- 
tire continent. It attains a length of eleven inches. The 



254 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



bill is long and straight. Their flight is erratic. The 
nests are in the grass and formed of leaves. The eggs, 
usually four, simulate the color of the surroundings in 
their greenish-white, gray, and brown tints. They affect 
lameness and broken wings to attract attention from the 
nest. Allied are the spoon-billed sand-piper, sanderling 
(Fig. 288, 6), godwit, curlew sand-piper (Fig. 288, 5), and 
the ruff (Fig. 289), the plovers, turn-stones (Fig. 288, 9), 
oyster-catchers (Fig. 288, 7), and the curious sheath-bill 




Fig. 290. — The sheath-bill (Chiornis minor) of Kerguelen Island. 



(Chiomis) (Fig. 290) of Kerguelen Island. They are con- 
fined to a few localities in the Antarctic regions, and are 
so tame that they follow visitors about like chickens, and 
are readily taken by hand. They are closely allied to the 
oyster-catchers {H<z?natopodidcz). ■ 

The Spoonbills (Plataleidce) have the bills com- 
pressed and enlarged at the tip. The roseate spoonbill 
(Ajaja rosed) is common in the Southern States, attaining 
a length of thirty inches, the wing about fifteen, and the 
bill seven and a half. The general color is a pale rose-red. 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 



255 



A white species is found in Europe and Asia. They nest 
in communities in trees, depositing from two to four thick- 
shelled, whitish eggs with reddish-gray and yellow spots. 
The ibis is an allied form. 

The Storks (Ciconiidce) have long, slender legs, the bill 
extremely stout and thick. The South American jabiru 
(Mycteria America- 
na) is the only repre- 
sentative in Ameri- 
ca. The Australian 
jabiru is one of the 
handsomest of the 
family, and has a 
wide range in that 
country. The white 
stork {Ciconia alba) 
(Fig. 291) is a com- 
mon Europeanform, 
with strong, conical, 
pointed bill. In the 
winter they migrate 
southward. They 
frequent marshes. 

Allied is the 
pouched stork or 
adjutant of India 
(Fig. 292), that has 
a curious skinny 
pouch hanging un- 
der the throat. 

They attain a height of five feet. A tame one has been 
known to swallow a whole boiled fowl, and to snap up 
a live cat. Allied to this group is the remarkable whale- 
headed stork {Balceniceps rex), in which the beak resembles 
a wooden shoe. They frequent the banks of the White 
Nile. The nest is a simple hole in the ground. The 




Fig. 291. — The white stork. 



256 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



marabou stork, from which the feathers of that name 
come, is the most valuable of the family. 




Fig. 292. — The adjutant-bird, showing the foot resting from heel to toe 
upon the ground. 

Herons (Ardeidce). — The great blue heron {Ardea 
herodias) is a familiar example in the Eastern States, rang- 
ing as far south as Guatemala, Central America. They 




Fig. 293. — European heron {Ardea cinerea) in full flight — a slow flier. 

attain a length of four feet, and are slow fliers (Fig, 293). 
The general color is grayish-blue, with black and white 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 257 

markings. In the breeding-season the back of the head 
bears a crest. They breed in Carolina near the sea and 
in New Jersey in the cedar-swamps, returning to the same 
locality for successive years. They feed upon fish and 
various small water-animals. The Florida great white 
and green herons are all familiar American forms. The 
cattle-heron [Babulcus ibis), of Africa, follows herds of ele- 
phants and buffaloes for the purpose of obtaining the in- 
sects that infest them. The American bittern (Botaurus 
minor) is found in all parts of temperate North America 
and as far south as Guatemala. They are nocturnal, 
feeding at night, and utter a strange, booming call or 
note. They are known to nest at Hudson's Bay in June, 
the nests being formed in swamps, and containing four 
green eggs. 

Value. — Feathers, and as game. 

The Bustards (Otididce) of the Old World form, to 
some extent, a connecting link between the wading and 
scratching birds. 

Order VII. Scratching Birds (Gai/incz). General 
Characteristics. — These land-birds are poor fliers, have 
short, stout bills, powerful feet for scratching, and the 
hind-toe generally elevated. The domestic fowl is a typi- 
cal form. 




Fig. 294. — Red-legged partridge {Perdix rub?-a) in full flight— a rapid flier. 

The Partridges (Perdicidtz) (Fig. 294) are small 
birds of compact form, with short beak, the nostrils pro- 



258 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

tected by a scale. They have a world-wide distribution. 
The Bob White (Ortyx Virginiand) is a familiar form, 
about nine and a half inches in length, the general color 
chestnut-red, barred and streaked with lighter tints below, 
the head richly marked with black and white streaks. In 
the female the white markings of the head are brownish- 
yellow. They nest in the grass, laying from ten to fifteen 
white eggs. To divert attention from the young, the 
mother has been known to throw herself at the feet of a 
sportsman and pretend to be dying, suddenly recovering 
when the young had escaped. In Pennsylvania they are 
known as partridges, and in New York as quails. 

The plumed partridge (Oreortyx pictus) and the Cali- 
fornia quail (Lophortyx) are other forms. 

Value. — As game. The Chinese quail {Coturnix) is only four 
inches in length, and is kept in cages for its fighting propensities, and 
formerly for the singular purpose of warming the hands of its owner 
in winter. 

Grouse (Tetrao?iidce). — About fifteen species are known. 
The prairie-hen [Cupidonia cupidd) is a familiar ex- 
ample. Its length is about seventeen inches. From the 
sides of the neck extends a tuft of pointed feathers, be- 
neath which is a bare spot capable of inflation, and in- 
tensely red. They range from the prairies southward to 
Louisiana. In early spring they congregate, and are ex- 
tremely pugnacious, fighting for their mates, and uttering 
curious booming sounds that can be heard a mile. The 
nest is formed, between April and May, of leaves of grass, 
and concealed in the grass. The eggs, eight to twelve in 
number, are light-colored, and are hatched in about nine- 
teen days. The mother shows great intelligence in trying 
to allure invaders from the nest. In most parts of the 
Scandinavian Peninsula is found the noblest ally of this 
family — the capercali (Tetrao urogallus). The black cock 
(Lyrurus tetrix) of Europe is an equally rich form. 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 2 $g 

The white ptarmigan (Lagopus albus) somewhat re- 
sembles the grouse ; the feet and toes, however, are cov- 
ered with feathers. The general hue is a cinnamon- 
brown, variegated with darker tints. The plumage changes 
with the seasons, and in winter is a dazzling white, the 
claws being shed also. They live in communities, and 
during the breeding-season unite in large flocks. The 
nests, of grass, earth, and feathers, are concealed with 
great skill, and contain from twelve to sixteen yellowish 
or reddish-brown, spotted eggs. 
Value. — As game. 

The Wild Turkey {Meleagris gallopavo) of the Unit- 
ed States is an allied form, four feet in length, the general 
coloring a glossy, coppery black. The neck is unfeath- 
ered, the breast of the male bearing a tuft of long bristles. 
There are only two species, and from the Mexican vari- 
ety is descended the common turkey. They are strictly 
American birds. The Pheasants (Phasianidce) form a 
large and beautiful group of birds confined to the Old 
World. The peacock (Pavo cristatus), that was first in- 
troduced into Europe by Alexander the Great, is a familiar 
type. The Argus pheasant {Argusianus giganteus), from 
Sumatra, is one of the most remarkable. The Chinese 
golden pheasant (Phaslanus pictus) is a resplendent species. 

Value. — Peacock oil, fat, and feathers, are all valuable articles of 
trade. Pheasants as game, and their feathers in decoration. 

The Domestic Fowl (Gallinci) came originally from 
the jungle-fowl of India. Allied are the Guinea-fowl. 

Mound-Builders {Megapodidce). — This strange group 
of Old World birds are allies of the preceding family, and 
are confined to Australia and India. The wattled tale- 
gallus (Talegallus Lathami) * in general appearance resem- 

* In early spring the bird throws together a heap of decayed 
leaves, etc., amounting often to two or three cart-loads, arranged in a 



26o 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



bles our common turkey, though smaller, being only two 
and a half feet long. It is found in New South Wales, and 
is remarkable for its method of hatching its eggs. 

The ocellated leipoa {Leipoa ocellata) of western Aus- 
tralia forms a mound of fine iron-stone gravel, mixed with 
vegetable matter, forty-five feet in circumference and near- 
ly five feet high, the heat developed in the interior being 




Fig. 295. — Brush-turkeys and their egg-mounds. 

pyramidal form four feet in height, the leaves being grasped in the 
claws and hurled backward, as shown in Fig. 295. The mass soon fer- 
ments, producing heat, and in it the white eggs are buried, fifteen 
inches deep, in a circle, the large end upward, and from nine to twelve 
inches apart, an opening being left in the center to govern the tem- 
perature of the mound, the birds also exposing the eggs on warm days. 
The young are hatched in thirty days, remaining in the mound twelve 
hours after being hatched. On the second night they return to the 
mound, and are partly covered by the male, the next day being able to 
fly and remain with the parents. 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 2 6i 

about 89 . The light-brown eggs are placed in a circle, 
the pointed ends downward, separated by about three 
inches of earth, and about them are often seen the gal- 
leries of the white ants, that form the first food for the 
young. The young, when hatched, scratch out alone, and 
are perfectly featherless. The mother, however, takes care 
of the brood after they come out. 

The megapodius (Megapodius tumulus), of Australia, is 
about the size of a pheasant, of a reddish-brown color, and 
a wily mimic when alarmed, alighting on a limb and crouch- 
ing close, extending its neck so as easily to be mistaken 
for a dead branch. The mounds are generally near the 
water, and sometimes measure a hundred and fifty feet 
in circumference and fifteen or twenty feet in height ; in 
this case, probably, the w T ork of generations. The white 
eggs are extremely large, and over three inches long, and are 
placed in the top of the mound at intervals near the sides, 
at a depth of six feet, the larger end being upward. The 
young, as soon as hatched, are able to care for themselves, 
though they undoubtedly follow the mother. 

The breeding habits of the Maleo (Megacephalon ma- 
/eo)* of the Island of Celebes, are still more remarkable, and 
exactly like those of the turtle. They resemble the Guinea 
fowl, but have a hard, round excrescence on the head. 

Allied are the Curassows, the strange hoasin, in 
which the keel of the breast-bone is cut away in front. 

* In August and September they go to the shore, and male and fe- 
male excavate a hole in the volcanic sand four feet deep, just above 
high-water mark. A single pale brick-red egg is deposited and light- 
ly covered ; ten or twelve days later the female returns, and so on 
until six or eight have been laid, and several hens that have come 
ten or fifteen miles for the same purpose may lay in the same hole. 
The young birds are hatched by heat in the sand, and break the shell 
and struggle up through the ground like turtles, where they are ena- 
bled to immediately take wing — a wonderful and necessary provision 
— as they never see the parents, and are at once thrown upon their 
own resources. 



262 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

Order VIII. Pigeons (Columba). General Charac- 
teristics. — The pigeons (Fig. 296) and doves are charac- 
terized by heavy bodies and short legs. The bill is short, 
straight, and compressed, the nostrils protected by a fleshy 
scale. They live in communities, and are, strictly speak- 
ing, ground-birds. The rock dove is the progenitor of the 
common stock. The ground dove {Cha?ncepelia passerina) 
ranges the United States from Washington to the South 




Fig. 296. — Wood-pigeon on her rude nest. 

Atlantic and Gulf coasts. They attain a length of six 
and a half inches. The general color is a grayish olive 
with a bluish gloss, the bill black with a yellow tip, and 
the iris of the eye orange-red. They congregate in flocks 
of four or five, and nest in low bushes. The Carolina and 
scaly doves are other American forms. 

The passenger pigeon* (Ectopistes migratorius) is a 

* These migrations are, as we shall see in the lemings, squirrels, 
rats, etc., not confined to any special time, but are made to obtain a 
new food-supply. Wilson estimated that a flock contained 2,000,- 
000,000,000 birds, and consumed per day 17,427,000 bushels of corn. 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 



263 



typical form, found east of the central plains of North 
America. They migrate in communities of millions, cov- 
ering every limb and branch of forests twenty or thirty 
miles in extent, breaking down great trees and limbs, 
rising in the air like clouds, darkening the sun, and creat- 
ing a sound with their wings like the roaring of a hurri- 
cane, or of distant thunder ; and so rapid is their flight 
that they attain a speed of more than a mile a minute. 
The nests are of twigs rudely placed together, often one 
hundred in a single tree, in which two eggs are laid, pro- 
ducing generally a male and female. They are fed with 
a milky fluid from the stomach of the parents. 

Of all the 
pigeons of the 
Old World, the 
crowned pigeon 
(Goura victor ce) 
of New Guinea 
and the toothed 
pigeon (Didun- 
culus sirigiros- 
tris), of the Nav- 
igator Islands, 
are most re- 
markable. 

The famous 
dodo (Didus in- 
eptus) (Fig. 297) 

lived upon the Island of Mauritius in 1598, but so com- 
plete is its extinction by man that it is now only known by 
a few pictures, bones, feathers, and other parts, in a few 
museums. It was a pigeon-like bird as large as a swan, 
with an enormous hooked bill and rudimentary feathers. 

The solitaire (D. solitarius) and Nazarene (D. nazare- 
nus) are other allies that have disappeared within com- 
paratively a few years. 




Fig. 297. — Dodo, an extinct giant pigeon. 



264 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



Value. — As game. Pigeon-oil is used by Indians, and the birds 
do a great work in dispersing seeds. After the Dutch Government at 
the Moluccas destroyed all the nutmeg-trees on all the islands except 
Great Banda, they were obliged to send a yearly commission to destroy 
those that grew from nutmeg-seeds transported there in the crops of 
the fruit-pigeons (Carpophaga concinnd). Coffee-seeds and many oth- 
ers are in this way carried from place to place. 

Note. — The Feejee pigeons {Chryscena) have remarkable feathers 
upon the breast and neck. The barbs are devoid of barbules, having 
instead small swellings arranged along at intervals, giving the plumage 
a remarkably loose appearance. 



Order IX. Birds of Prey (Raptor es). General Char- 
acteristics. — The birds of this order correspond in their 
habits to the carnivorous mammals. They prey upon 
animals dead or alive, and for the purpose have hooked 
bills, and powerful claws. 

In the Vultures (Catkartidce), the head and part of 

the neck is bare, 
and the wings pow- 
erful. The Califor- 
nia condor (Pseudo- 
gryphus California- 
nus) rivals the great 
condor of the Andes 
in size, and four of 
them have been seen 
to drag a young 
grizzly bear several 
hundred feet. Their 
total length is about 
fifty inches, and the 
spread of wings 
nine feet. They 
soar high and sight 
their food, which 
reat distances. The nest, 




Fig. 29S. — Turkey buzzard. 



consists of dead animals, from 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 



265 



rudely constructed of sticks, is placed upon rocks and 
other eminences. 

Note. — The author once made the acquaintance of a caged con- 
dor that soon learned to recognize him, stretching out its head to be 
scratched like a dog, delicately nibbling at his fingers, and showing 
every evidence of good-fellowship. Its dignified movements are in 
strange contrast to those of the shuffling, ungainly eagles. 




Fig. 299. — Condor. 



The turkey buzzard (Fig. 298) {Cathartes aura), the 
condor (Fig. 299) of the Andes, and the king-vulture of 
Mexico and South America, are other familiar forms. 
12 



266 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



Of the Old World vultures the Lammergyer (Gyfiaetus 
barbatus) is the largest. 

In Africa is found the long-legged secretary vulture 
(G. serpentarhis). 

Value. — They are scavengers, and the quills are used in trade. 




Fig. 3C0. — Eagle, nest, and young. 



The Falcons (Falconidce) have strongly-hooked beaks 
and claws, and are adapted for securing living prey. 
The bald eagle {Haliaetus leucocephalus) is a typical 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 267 

form, ranging throughout temperate North America, and 
attains a length of three feet and stretch of wing of 
seven feet. The general color is brown, the neck, head, 
and tail white after the third year. They are arrant cow- 
ards, driven about by the small king-bird, and stealing 
the hard - earned plunder of the osprey. The nest is 
generally in a tall tree, composed of sticks, sods, etc., 
and added to year by year, often assuming great pro- 
portions. 

In South America the harpy eagle ( Thrascetus harpyid) 
is most formidable and preys upon the sloth, while the 
sea, golden* (Fig. 300), imperial and African screaming 
eagles are other typical forms. 

The hawks are much smaller than the eagles, and, 
including the latter, fifty-three species are known in 
North America. The sharp-shinned hawk (Acdpiter fus- 
cus) is common all over North America. The female, 
contrary to the rule among birds, is larger than the 
male. 

The swallow-tailed kite {Elanoides forficatus) \ is pe- 
culiarly an American bird. In their habits and flight they 
resemble the swallows, and also feed upon insects, wasps, 
and grasshoppers, and have been seen darting about in 
a swarm of bees, catching them in their claws and eat- 
ing them. The prairie falcon, sparrow hawk, osprey, gos- 
hawks, harriers, etc., are other familiar forms. 

* These birds are extremely powerful, and have been known to 
carry off large animals and children, and in one instance a golden 
eagle attacked a pig and was carrying it off when the owner rushed 
out. The eagle then dropped the pig, and attacked the man wirh 
such fury that only the timely assistance of several villagers saved his 
life. 

f Prof. Moseley saw a kite of another genus (Mihus) at Cape 
Verd Islands that had the habits of a gull and flew about the ship, 
picking up with its feet bits of garbage, eating also on the wing. 
One of the birds was seized by a shark while it was fishing, and after 
a short struggle drawn under water. 



268 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

Note. — Over nine species of hawks and falcons were formerly used 
in hunting ; as early as 400 B. c. this sport was indulged in, and in 
the reign of Edward III to kill a falcon was punished with death. In 
1290 Kublai Khan in Central Asia had no less than ten thousand fal- 
cons. The khan rode upon an elephant, and his army of ten thousand 
formed a great circle to catch the birds. The eight hundred falcons 
of the King of Persia in the seventeenth century were trained to hunt 
wild boars, asses, antelopes, and foxes, and to blind them. The sport 
is carried on to this day near Abasheher, Persia. The Bedouins of the 
Sahara capture large numbers to sell. 

Value. — Hawk and eagle quills are valued in trade. 

The Owls (Strigidce) have large heads, the eyes direct- 
ed forward, the plumage soft, rendering the flight noise- 
less, ear-tufts in some conspicuous, claws long and sharp. 
They have a world-wide range, and are generally noctur- 
nal. About forty American species are known. 

The great horned owl (Bubo Virginiajius) (Fig. 301), 
and the screech owls, are common American forms. 

The snowy owl (Nyctea nived) is found in the northern 
portion of both continents, and is generally pure white, 
more or less barred with dark tints. It winters in New 
England and as far north as Spitzbergen, living in the 
ptarmigan fells, preying upon these birds and capturing 
them easily. From its remarkable resemblance to them, 
the ptarmigans often mistake it for one of their kind. 
They see readily in the day-time, and in northern Asia 
follow the lemmings and other small animals. 

The burrowing owl * (Spheotyto cunicularia, var. hypo- 
gad) is peculiar to America. They live in the burrows of 
the prairie-dogs, often in company with rattlesnakes. 

Order X. Parrots (Psittaci). General Characteris- 
tics. — The birds of this order are characterized by heavy, 

* In South America the burrowing owl {Athene) lives in the burrow 
of the Lagostomus, the Agouti also making use of the den. That it 
is laziness on the part of the owl is shown by the fact that if the Lagos- 
tomus is not in its neighborhood, it digs its own burrow. 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 



269 




p^" 



3 



Fig. 301. — A group of night-birds — owls. 



stout, often enormous bills, the base, as in the hawks, cov- 
ered by a soft skin. The tongue is short and fleshy, and 
the beak of the upper jaw is articulated to the skull so 
that it is free to an unusual extent. They are, as a rule, 



270 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 




Fig. 302.— Carolina parrot. 



poor fliers, and are remarkable for their gorgeous plumage 

and their power of imitating the sounds of other animals. 

The Carolina 
parroquet [Conu- 
rus Carolinensis) 
(Fig. 302), and 
perhaps two oth- 
ers, that have been 
shot in Texas, are 
the only repre- 
sentatives in the 
United States. 
The former is 
about thirteen 
inches in length, 
the general color 
green,* neck and 
head yellow, the 
face red, bill 

white, wings blue and yellow. They fly in flocks, feed- 
ing upon nuts and seeds, 

and show the greatest 

affection for their mates 

or wounded companions. 

They are' undoubtedly 

doomed to extinction. 

Allied are the cockatoos, 

lories, etc. 

Note. — One of the most re- 
markable parrots is the kea 
(Nestor notabilis) of New Zea- 
land (Fig. 303). The general 
colors are brown and gray, 
the under portions red. The 
upper mandible is extremely 
long and sickle-shaped. Since 
the introduction of sheep into 




Fig. 303.— A carnivorous parrot {Nes- 
tor mirabilis). 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 



271 



that country, these birds have developed a taste for them, and in con- 
sequence are in a fair way of being exterminated. This habit was first 
noticed in 1868, and the wound was always on the back in front of the 
hips. In one station on the Matataapu, nineteen out of a flock of 
twenty rams were killed by these parrots in a month. In another 
flock of three hundred and ten young, two hundred and five were killed 
in five months. Men are now employed to kill them. 

Value. — Parrot feathers are used in trade, and the nestor is eaten. 

Order XI. Woodpeckers, etc. (Picarice). 

The Yellow-billed Cuckoo {Coccyzus Americanus) is 
found throughout the whole extent of North America, 
from Canada to Florida, and from the Atlantic to the Pa- 
cific. They are twelve inches in length. They pair in 
May, the rude nest* of twigs being often placed in an 
apple-tree. The eggs, generally three or four, are of a 
greenish blue. The female often feigns lameness in order 
to divert attention from the nest. 

The Ani, or tick-eater (Crotophaga am), of Florida, and 
south to Brazil, is an allied form, and remarkable for its 
thin, arched, sharply-curved bill. They may with many 
others be termed guardian birds, as they are often seen 
clinging to the ears, tail, horns, and hair of cattle, carefully 
catching ticks and other parasites. 

The Trogons (Trogonida) are found in North and 
South America, India, and Africa. The Mexican trogon 

* The Old World cuckoos are remarkable for their habit of slyly 
depositing their eggs in the nests of other birds, thus shirking the 
work of incubation. In Australia they are often placed in a nest hardly 
large enough for one, and the knowledge of this seems to be instinctive 
in the young, for as soon as hatched it tumbles out the young and eggs 
that really belong there by pushing under them, and thus receives all 
the food-supply. The English, nearly all the Australian, and the 
Indian black cuckoos have this habit, the latter placing their eggs 
in the nests of crows. An allied bird of Africa, the honey-guide, preys 
upon the nests of honey-bees, and is protected by a remarkable cover- 
ing of skin and feathers, the former so thick that a pin can hardly be 
thrust through it. 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 




■ ^ 



/ 



Fig. 304. — Trogon. 



( Trogon Mexi- 
catius) is the 
only species 
found in North 
America. They 
have broad, ser- 
rated mandi- 
bles, are richly 
colored, green 
and carmine. 
The nest is gen- 
erally placed in 
a hollow tree, 
the eggs num- 
bering three or four, resembling 
those of a pigeon. 

The Trogan resflendins, of South 
America, is one of the most mag- 
nificent of all birds. In the male 
(Fig. 304) the two middle tail- 
coverts are three times the length 
of the bird, composed of long, 
loose barbs of a rich metallic 
green. 

The Kingfishers (Alcedin- 
have large heads, a long, 
straight bill, powerful wings, and 
weak claws. The belted king- 
fisher [Ceryie alcyori) is the com- 
mon American form, a little over 
a foot in length, colored ashy blue 
above with a bluish band across 
the breast, and white below. Upon 
the head is a crest capable of being 
lowered or elevated. They are 
found in the borders of streams 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 



/o 



and lakes, dashing 
into the water for 
their prey, return- 
ing to devour it 
upon some branch, 
and uttering a harsh cry. 
The nest is a tunnel often 
six feet long, formed by 
the male and female in a 
cliff or bank adjoining the 
-• ■■■:-.-.zz. The tee?, gen- 
erally six, are pure white. 
The Australian and 
Indian kingfishers are re- 
markable for their beauty 
of coloring. The Aus- 
rnliiz. '.i'izrJ.-z ;icki55 is 
one of the largest, and 
noted for its demoniac 
i:..:rh:er. The n:ke:- 
tailed kingfisher, of the 
Malay Archipelago (Fig. 
305), is one of the most 
beautiful of the group. 

: — 7h = fe; ' :: ; :.re 
•_: s e rl : .~ :n:.;-. 

The Toucans (Rham- 
phasHda) are remarkable 
for their enormous, ser- 
rated, highly colored bills. 
The tongue is long and 
iz-.zzi -:':-!:. hi:": 5. They 
are confined to South 
America. 

The reh-hkiei ::.::i~ 










274 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



{R. erythrorhynchus) (Fig. 306) is one of the most beautiful 

species. They are fruit-feeders, but occasionally capture 

insects and small 
animals. The eggs 
are laid in hollow 
trees. 

The Hornbills 
(Bucerotidce) are 
even more remark- 
able than the pre- 
ceding for the size 
of their bill, that in 
some seems almost 
a deformity ; but, 
unwieldy as it ap- 
pears, it is filled 
with air - cavities, 
and light in the ex- 
treme (Fig. 307). 

They are confined to Africa and the Eastern islands. 
The great two-horned hornbill* of India attains a 

length of four feet, the 

beak ten inches, and has 

a second deck or ridge, 

thus appearing double. 
The Woodpeckers 

(PicidcE) have straight 

bills, adapted for ham- 
mering on wood to ob- 




Fig. 306. — Yellow toucan, showing enormous 
serrated bill. 




Fig. 307. — Section of skull of hornbill 
(Buceros), showing air-cavities. 



* Their nest-building is most remarkable and applies equally to 
African species. A hollow tree is selected, in which the female takes 
her place and forms a nest of feathers, the cavity being immediately 
walled up with mud by the male, leaving only a small orifice for her 
bill. The plaster soon hardens and she is a prisoner, fed by the male 
through the hole until the eggs are laid, hatched, and the young fully 
fledged. The young are perfectly naked at birth (Fig. 308). 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 



275 



tain the insects that are the objects of search. The tongue 
is long, flattened, and barbed, and by a peculiar muscular 
arrangement can be forced out with great velocity. 




Fig. 308. — Hornbill and young, cemented in their nest by the male, who 
feeds them through a hole left for the purpose. 

The ivory-billed woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) 
is a typical American form, confined to the Southern States 



276 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



It is a large bird, twenty-one inches long, the general color 
black with white markings, the crest bright scarlet in the 
male. They cling upon trees, and bore and hammer out 
the grubs and insects there concealed, and are so powerful 
that in a few hours they have been known to tear off thirty 
feet of bark. The nest is pecked out of the trunk of a 
live tree, generally beneath a branch, first directly in and 
then downward for two or three feet, and here the six or 
eight w T hite eggs are deposited. Their cries are exceed- 
ingly human, and like those of a hurt child. 

Note. — The California woodpecker (Melanerpes formicivoms) is 
remarkable for its habit of storing up acorns for winter food by boring 
a hole in a tree and driving in the acorn so tightly that no other animal 
can get it out. So frequent are these in some trees that they appear 
as if studded with nails. At Mount Pizarro, where such storehouses 
are found, the nearest oak-trees are in the Cordilleras, thirty miles dis- 
tant ; thus each acorn required a 
flight of sixty miles besides the labor 
of boring the hole. 

The generic name of the 
Night Hawks (Caprimulgi- 
dce) refers to a curious super- 
stition that the birds milk 
goats and cows. They are 
generally nocturnal, have 
short, triangular bills, enor- 
mous mouths (Fig. 309) for 
the capture of insects, and 
soft plumage, that explains 
their noiseless, quiet flight. 

The whip-poor-will (Capri- 

mulgus vociferus) is a familiar 

form. The general color is 

grayish, much variegated, the 

ends of the outer tail-feathers white. In all the family 

the color is protective, their crouching positions lending 




Fig. 309. — Night hawk, feeding 
on the wing. 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 277 

still further security. They are solitary birds, only com- 
ing out at night, or late in the afternoon, then capturing 
insect-food upon the wing, the lonesome cry — whip-poor- 
will — being heard up to midnight. No nest is made, the 
eggs having a protective coloring of greenish white, speck- 
led and blotched with bluish gray and light brown, and 
placed in the grass or fallen leaves. 

Note.— According to Audubon, some take the egg in the capacious 
mouth and flutter away. This has been doubted, but the careful ob- 
server, Dr. Brehm, has seen the male and female night-jar each take 
an egg in its mouth and fly away. Both parents assist in incubation. 
The family is exceedingly large, and found in many countries. The 
lyre-tailed night-jar, of Africa, is one of the most beautiful forms. 

Value. — The oil of steatornis is used for illuminating purposes in 
South America. The feathers of some are used. 

The Swifts (Cypselidoz) * should not be confused with 
the swallow, which they much resemble. The wings are 
long, thin, and pointed, the feet weak, and the salivary 
glands, used in nest-building, highly developed. 

The chimney swift f (Choztura pelasgicd) is a typical 
example. The general color is a sooty brown, the throat 
lighter, the length five and a half inches. They are com- 

* To this family belongs the famous edible-nest swift {Collocalia 
nidified) of India and adjacent countries. The nests are confined 
to certain localities, and generally placed in dangerous positions. The 
nest is a thin, gummy shelf or basket formed entirely of saliva. The 
bird hovers about the wall, presses its tongue to it, attaching a single 
thread of gluten, that coagulates on contact with the air. By repeating 
this for weeks the solid nest is finally formed, at first pure and clear, 
but becoming later discolored by the birds. Many persons lose their 
lives in collecting them, having to be lowered over precipices by rattan 
ropes. 

A Guatemalan swift forms a tube out of the down of plants, three 
or four feet in length, on the under side of a precipitous reck. The 
entrance is below, and the eggs laid on a shelf. A Brazilian species 
fastens a similar tube to a tree-limb and covers the outside with feathers. 

f Commonly called chimney swallow. 



278 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

mon in the United States, and seem to seek the company 
of human beings. The nest is formed of twigs glued with 
saliva to the chimney, forming a bracket and hardening 
to the consistency of stone. They drink, bathe, and eat 
on the wing, after the fashion of the humming-birds. 

Value. — The nests of the edible species are valued at fifteen or 
twenty dollars per pound in China. 

The Humming-Birds (Irochilidce) are confined ex- 
clusively to America, and generally the tropical regions, 
several species being found as far west as Juan Fernandez, 
and a few species in North America. The bill is gener- 
ally long, straight or curved, the tongue capable of great 
protrusion, wings long and powerful, and claws minute 
and sharp. They are the smallest and most brilliantly 
colored of all birds. Our best-known form is the ruby- 
throat* (1'rochilus colubris), which attains a length of three 
and a quarter inches. 

Order XII. Perching Birds (Passeres). General 
Characteristics. — The birds of this large order have the 
feet adapted for grasping, one toe extending backward. 
The bill is sharp, horny, and generally conical. They com- 
prise the singers, and many are wonderfully musical, the 
notes corresponding to our vocal expressions.! 

* They nest in Massachusetts about the 8th of June. The nests, 
as are those of almost the entire family, are adapted to the general 
surroundings in color, and so protected. They are often attached to an 
apple-tree, made up of matted layers of flying seed-wings, and lined 
with the down of the mullein. The outside is covered with bits of 
lichen, glued on, so that the nest resembles a part of the limb. 

f It has been shown that young singing birds, as a rule, learn (as do 
children) the language or note of the parent that brings them up. The 
prolonged and convulsive laughter of man is equally as ridiculous, 
when seriously considered, as the chattering of a monkey, or the so- 
called laughter of some birds. It is merely a relief from mental strain. 
(For experiments with young song-birds brought up by other parents, 
see " Philosophical Transactions," vol. lxiii, by Hon. Daines Barring- 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 



2/9 



The Flycatchers (Tyrannidce) are a large family of 
strictly American, insectivorous birds, with broad, triangu- 
lar, abruptly-hooked bills, and small feet adapted for perch- 
ing and grasping. Their notes are simple. The king- 
bird (Tyramius Carolinensis) may be selected out of a mul- 
titude of forms as a typical species. Their general color 
is a blackish ash, the tail black with white tip, the breast 
and lower portions white. They attain a length of nearly 
nine inches, and prey upon insects, securing them upon 
the wing. The nest is placed in a tree, and formed of 
artificial objects, as tow, strings, wool, and lined with 
fibers of wood, horse-hair, etc. The eggs, six in number, 
are reddish white, marked with brown streaks. The male, 
during the breeding-season, and at all times, is extremely 
bold. It feeds its mate, and attacks crows, eagles, and 
hawks with the greatest fury, ultimately driving them 
from the vicinity. They migrate south earlier than other 
birds. 

The lyre-bird {Menura superba), of New South Wales, 
is an ally of the flycatchers, and a giant among them. 
The male has a lyre- shaped development of the tail-feath- 
ers nearly two feet in length, composed of sixteen feathers. 
The female is a small, unattractive bird. The nest is com- 
posed of moss, twigs, and grasses, and covered by a dome- 
shaped roof. The two eggs are white, speckled with red. 

The Larks {Alandidce) are chiefly Old World birds, 
four species only being found in America. The bill is 
short, the nostrils concealed by the feathers, the hind 
claw long and straight, the singing apparatus well devel- 
oped, and all are remarkable singers. 

The skylark {Alauda arvensis) is an immigrant to this 
country, and common in Europe and Asia. While singing 
it rises in the air with seeming bounds till far out of sight, 
uttering a rich, melodious carol. The nest is formed in 

ton. For songs of birds set to music, see "American Naturalist," vol. 
xiii ; p. 21.) 



28o BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

May, and built by male and female upon the ground, 
generally in communities, being a simple hollow in the 
stubble, lined with horse-hair and grass. 

Value. — Game, and as insect-eaters. 

The Crows (Corvidce) are birds of large size, and 
possess powerful bills ; the voice is harsh and unmusical. 
The blue jay (Cyanocitta cristatd) is the best known of the 
jays, and is widely distributed over America. The nest is 
placed in trees, formed of twigs lined with grass and deli- 
cate fibers, and contains four or five olive-brown, dark- 
spotted eggs. They are migratory in the Northern States. 

Note. — The Canada jay (P. Canadensis) is a guardian bird that 
alights on the moose, hanging from its horns and fur in eager search for 
parasites, an act of friendship the moose does not object to. Other 
species in Europe perform the same office for the reindeer. 

The common crow {Corvus frugivorus) is a familiar form, with a 
purplish-violet plumage, attaining a length of twenty inches. They 
are remarkably intelligent, and form vast rookeries, starting off each 
day and flying for miles, returning at night. They build in trees, the 
nest being composed of twigs and roots, and about two feet across. The 
eggs, from three to six, are laid in April, and are bluish green with olive- 
green or dark streaks. The male feeds his mate during the period of 
incubation, seeds or animal diet being equally to their taste. They 
have been seen to drop clams from a height to break their shells, and 
the rocks about Ocean Point, Maine, are covered with Echini (Fig. 
35) killed in the same way. 

The raven is remarkable for its vocal powers, equaling the parrot. 
The jackdaw, rook, and black-headed crow are other interesting allies. 

The Birds of Paradise (Paradisece) are allies of the 
crows, and confined to New Guinea and the adjacent 
country. In their elaboration of plumage they are the 
most remarkable of all birds. One of the most superb 
forms is the ruby bird of paradise {Paradisea rubra) that 
is found on the Island of Waigiou. They fly in flocks, 
uttering a hoarse and harsh Whack-whack-whack ! that 
can be heard for a long distance. They breed in May in 
the North. 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 



28l 




Fig. 310. — King bird of paradise. 



Other remarkable forms are the resplendent epima- 
chus, the rifle-bird, and the king bird of paradise (Fig. 
310), their gor- 
geous colorings a/ 
defying ade- 
quate descrip- 
tion. 

The Plan- 
tain-Eaters 
(Musofihagi- 
dce)* are pecul- 
iar to the Afri- 
can continent. 
They are about 
the size of the 
raven, and are 
exclusively 
fruit-eaters. 
The eggs are 
white, and deposited in hollow trees. 

The Mouse-Birds (Co/idcs) \ are so singular that they 
deserve particular mention. They are found exclusively 
in Africa, and are allies of the preceding. They resemble 

* M. Jules Verreaux is authority for the statement that the 
coloring - matter of the red feathers of one of this family (Tura- 
cus albocristatus) is soluble in water. Their red feathers may be 
washed white twice in the same day, the color invariably returning 
when dry. 

f The wiriwa {Colitis Sencgalensis) is invariably found upon the 
thickly-vined trees, darting in and out of the holes like a mouse. 
They have been seen to roost in a most curious manner like bats, 
clinging or hanging by their feet head downward, or in groups, cling- 
ing to each other in clumps upon the branches ; the first bird grasping 
the branch with one claw, supporting a second bird by entwining one 
of its legs with its own, this bird in a like manner supporting a third, 
and so on until they form a chain of living bird-links. They are fruit- 
eaters. The nest is conical and placed in trees, and contains six or 
seven eggs. 



282 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

swallows, with high crests, and have tails longer than the 
body. The general color is a mouse-gray, the back-feath- 
ers being so fine as to resemble hair. The striking char- 
acteristic of the bird is the foot, that is bright red, and 
exceedingly powerful. All four toes point forward, and 
those at the exterior can be turned either way. 

Starlings (Sturnidci). — The only member of this fam- 
ily found in America is the European starling (Sturnus 
vulgaris), that is an occasional visitor in Greenland. 

Oxpeckers (Buphagince). — These African birds (Fig. 
311) are allied to the starlings, and have strong, hooked 




Fig. 311. — Oxpecker {Buphaga Africafia). 

claws, and a generally brownish-gray color. They come 
under the head of what we have termed guardian birds, 
following camels, cattle, elephants, and rhinoceroses, cling- 
ing to their ears, limbs, and fur, running over them like 
woodpeckers over a tree, and often warning them unin- 
tentionally of danger by rising with loud cries. 

The Orioles (Icteridce) have generally melodious voices 
and rich, lustrous plumage. 

The crow blackbirds (Quiscalus purpureus) are familiar 
members of the family, arriving in New England in April. 
They are social birds, moving about in vast flocks. The 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 



283 



nest is generally built in a high tree, and resembles that of 
the robin. Some, however, develop a curious friendship 
for the fish hawk, and form their nests in among the in- 
terstices of its large abode, living there in the greatest har- 
mony. 

The Baltimore oriole {Icterus galbula) is a familiar form 
throughout North America. The length is about seven 
and three quarter inches. They have singularly melodious 
voices, and are remarkable for their architectural abilities. 




Fig. 312. — Bobolink, or reed-bird. 



The nest is the combined work of male and female, and is 
hammock-shaped, swung from the branches, and made of 
threads of flax, silk-weed or cloth, horse-hair, and other 
material, the leaves of the trees forming a canopy over all. 



:8 4 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 




The eggs, from four to six, are pale green, with dark spots 
or streaks. The young are fully fledged in three weeks. 

Allied is the bobolink 
(Dolichonyx oryzivorus) 
(Fig. 312), or reed-bird of 
the Southern States, so 
famous for its rich notes. 
Allied to this family 
are the several Australian 
bower - birds, remarkable 
for erecting play-houses 
(Fig. 313) distinct from 
the nest. 

Fig. 313.— Bower-bird, showing the Note. — In the satin bower- 

bower and the ornaments collected. bird the bower or play-house is 

the work of the male or males, 
and formed on the ground. The sides are made of twigs and small 
branches, planted by the birds in the ground, joined at the top and 
forming a tunnel, on the floor of which is placed bird bric-a-brac — 
highly-colored shells, pebbles, white bones, parrot-feathers, and glit- 
tering dbjects of all kinds. Here the male and female dance about, 
changing the ornaments, and showing their delight in various ways. 
It is, in fact, a bird ball-room. The nest is generally placed in the 
near vicinity. 

The Gardener- Bird * (Amblyornts inornata) is about 
the size of the robin, of a rufous-brown hue, and is only 
found on the Island of Papua. 

* Instead of a bower, it erects a complete cabin (Fig. 314), and 
plants a garden about it. A small tree is selected, and one foot and 
a half from the ground a cone of moss is fastened to form a support 
for the roof, the latter being built of slender branches of an orchid se- 
lected for its vitality, the twigs resting against the moss, the other ends 
entering the ground one foot and a half from the center-post, and ar- 
ranged about until a perfect roof is the result, an opening on one side 
being left as a door, as shown in Fig. 314. The roof is thatched and 
interwoven with other pieces until weather-tight, the orchids continu- 
ing their growth and forming a perfect roof. About the entrance or 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 



285 




Fig. 314. — The gardener-bird ; its house, garden, flowers, etc. 



The Finches (Fringillidce) have the bill shorter and 
more robust than in the preceding family, the corners of 
the mouth drawn down. They have a wide range in every 
country except Australia. 

The cardinal grosbeak (Cardinalis Virginianus) is one 
of our familiar birds. The general color is red, ashy on 
the back, the chin and forehead black, the crest conspicu- 
ous, and the beak a bright red. Their notes are extremely 
melodious, especially in the breeding-season. The nests 
are placed in trees, and contain from four to six grayish- 
white eggs, with olive-brown markings. 

door rich green mosses are planted and kept clean, and upon this 
miniature meadow bright flowers and insects are scattered, which are 
taken away and replenished as soon as they fade. In this curious 
habitation the birds meet in social and aesthetic enjoyment, the nest 
being entirely different and distinct 



286 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

Note. — The English sparrow (Fig. 271), an importation, is a 
grain-eater when grown, but as it breeds six and even seven times 
a year, and the young are invariably fed upon insects, it is of 
value. Public opinion is against the pugnacious immigrant, but 
some naturalists who have made the subject a special study think 
that the bird is a benefit to the country on the above grounds. In 
the Central Park Zoological Garden they have taken possession of 
the rafters of the eagle-house, while year after year a pair rear their 
young on the back of the iron eagle over the door of the Arsenal. 
(See "Report of American Ornithological Union," 1884.) 

The Tanagers ( Tanagridd) include three hundred or 
more species, confined to the warmer portions of America. 
Their colors are brilliant, legs short, claws long, the bill 
conical, and sometimes serrated or notched. 

The scarlet tanager (Pyranga rubra) is a familiar form 
in the New England States. The general color of the 
male is scarlet, the wings and tail black. Their note is 
Chifi-churr, repeated at short intervals, and at other times 
exactly like that of a robin. They are more or less ven- 
triloquists — a protective provision — their note sounding 
far away when the bird is near at hand. The nests are 
rudely made, the eggs marked with purple spots. 

The Swallows (ffirundinidce) have a world-wide distri- 
bution. The bill is broad, short, and triangular, the gape 
wide, adapted for capturing insects on the wing, the wings 
long and pointed, tail forked, and feet extremely weak. 

The bank swallows (Fig. 315) are remarkable for their 
digging powers, excavating holes in the face of banks, and 
there forming the nest. The tunnels are often six feet 
deep. 

The barn swallow forms its nest of mud, brought in its 
mouth and plastered against the wall, often assuming the 
shape of that of some of the weavers. An entire nest is 
frequently built in three days. 

The Chatterers (A??ipelid&) have a short, broad, de- 
pressed bill, opening to the eyes, the mandibles notched 
with a tooth behind the notch, the head generally crested. 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 



287 




Fig. 315. — Bank swallow, showing cave-nest and young-. 



The cedar-bird (Ampe/is cedroriwi) is abundant in east- 
ern United States. The nest is made in low trees or 
bushes, and from three to four purplish-white and black 
spotted eggs are laid. 

Allied to this family is the cock of the rock * (Rupicold) 

* They are remarkable for their " entertainments," or courtships. 
Twenty or more of these birds have been seen standing in a circle, 
some seated upon rocks, while in the center a solitary male hopped 



288 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 




wMl 




of South America (Fig. 316). It is. about twelve inches 
long, red or yellowish in color, with a prominent crest. 

The female 
and young are 
brown. 

The umbrel- 
la-bird (Cepha- 
lopterus orna- 
tus) (Fig. 317) 
resembles a 
crow, having, 
however, a cu- 
rious umbrella- 
like crest that 
completely cov- 
ers the head. 

Among the 
remarkable al- 
lies of the fam- 
ily are the African Weaver- Birds, distinguished for the 
intelligence displayed in their nest-building. 

Note. — The social weaver-birds breed in regular cities, a joint 
nest being formed generally in the aloe-tree. A thatched roof of 
grass is erected, the entrances beneath leading into a corridor or street, 
from both sides of which branch the nests, thus secure from snakes, 
and containing three or four bluish-white eggs, with small brown 
spots at the largest end. Year after year the nest is added to, often 
fairly breaking down the tree. 

Another peculiar allied South American form is the 
bell-bird. 

and leaped about, going through strange antics, spreading its wings 
and waving its tail until exhausted, then walking around as if to re- 
ceive applause, retiring to give place to another, who went through 
similar antics, followed by all the rest in turn. They nest in the trees. 
Their skin is in great demand. One of the state mantles of the Em- 
peror of Brazil was made of them. 



Fig. 316. — Cock of the rock. 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 



289 



The Shrikes (Lanidcz) have hawk-like bills, abruptly- 
hooked, the upper mandible toothed, and both notched. 
They have a world-wide distribution. 

The great northern shrikes, or butcher-birds (Zam'us 
borealis), are about nine inches in length. They prey upon 
insects, mice, and other birds, and are called butchers 




Fig. 317. — Umbrella-bird. 



from the fact that their surplus game, birds, etc., are im- 
paled,* while yet living, on thorns, briers, or bushes. They 
are great mimics, and extremely adept at learning notes. 
The nest is placed in trees, the greenish-gray, brown -spot- 
ted eggs^being from four to seven in number. 

In the wagtails {Motacillidce) the bill is shorter than the 
head, slender, straight, and notched at the tips. The feet 
are strong, and adapted for walking. They are mostly 
confined to the Eastern Hemisphere ; the name refers to 
the habit of moving the tail up and down. 

* A tame butcher-bird has been known to impale animals given it 
on a sharp stick supplied for the purpose. 
13 



290 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



The titlark {Anthus Ludovicianus) (Fig. 318) is a fa- 
miliar American form. The nest is formed in the grass. 
Allied is the tailor-bird, that, with its bill as a needle and 
grass for thread, sews leaves together to form its nest 
(Fig. 319). 

The wrens (Troglodyiidce) are 
chiefly denizens of tropical Amer- 
ica, though a number of species are 





Fig. 318. — American titlark. 

familiar visitors about Northern 
homes. The common house wren 
( Troglodytes cedo?i) is about five inch- 
es long, and of a brown hue. The 
nest is generally found near the 
habitation of man, in holes or crev- 
ices, in which five or six pale red- 
dish eggs are laid. 

Allied are the nuthatches, European hanging tit (Fig. 
320), stone-chat, bluebird, and others. 

The water-ousel (Cinclida) is essentially aquatic in its 
habits, not only wading in the water, but flying into and 
under it, using its wings as fins to reach the bottom and 
obtain food. It is common about brooks. The nest is 
placed near a cascade, and is a great globe of living 



Fig. 319. — Nest of the 
tailor-bird of India or 
China. 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 



291 



moss ever kept green from the spray of the falls. The 
entrance is a doorway formed in the moss, leading to the 
interior, which is 
lined with soft 
grasses, and con- 
tains four or five 
pure white eggs. 

The large fam- 
ily of thrushes 
(Turdidce) is rep- 
resented by the 
robin, mocking- 
bird, cat-bird, 
and others. The 
wood thrush is 
the highest of the 
ciass of birds. 
The pervading 
color is cinna- 
mon-brown, grad- 
ing into olive on 
the rump, the 
breast blocked or 
marked with dis- 
tinct spots. They attain a length of eight inches, and are 
noted for their glorious powers of song, resembling the 
tinkling of a bell or the soft notes of a flute. The nest is 
found in low hollows, and contains four or five blue eggs. 

Speciniens for Study. — For purposes of study, the skele- 
ton of a common fowl or other bird offers good material. 
The flesh can be boiled away, and the bones arranged as 
in Fig. 268 ; the limbs and skull should be compared with 
the corresponding parts of reptiles and mammals, and the 
difference noted. If the skeleton is to be mounted, the 
bird should be skinned and macerated. The tools neces- 
sary for work are a hook for suspending large specimens, 




Fig. 320. — Bird architecture : Hanging tit and 
nest. 



292 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

forceps, scissors, scalpels, and a syringe for injecting the 
veins, etc. The student should be able to skin a bird, but 
mounting can only be learned by practice. Several works 
are published on the subject, as Maynard's " Taxidermy." 
To skin a bird, first measure its girth over the wings. 
Make an incision low on the breast ; skin carefully around 
the wings, cutting the bone at the elbow (Fig. 268 e), 
and the legs at the knee - joint, pushing the skin with 
the handle of the knife in preference to cutting.. Care 
should be taken with the neck, and, if the head is not 
too large, turn the skin over it to the bills. Scrape away 
all the flesh, being careful at the eyes and ears. Sever the 
neck close to the skull, take out the brain, and powder 
thoroughly all the parts — beak, wings, legs, and tail — with 
powdered arsenic. Fill up the body in all parts with cot- 
ton and sew up the incision. The feathers may be cleaned 
by boiling in warm water. Oil-stains can be removed with 
a solution of soda or potash, and colored feathers are 
cleansed by using equal parts of warm water and ox-gall. 
Finally, inclose the skin in a paper band the size of your 
measurement, number and enter it in a blank book with 
the common and scientific name, sex, locality, measure- 
ments, and all the facts concerning its habits that you can. 
In collecting eggs, divide fairly with the birds, and if pos- 
sible do not take the nest until the brood is reared. Eggs 
can be blown by making a single hole in the shell with a 
tooth-drill or some such instrument, and with a glass tube 
or straw the contents can be blown out. If the young bird 
has formed and can not be removed, break the shell and 
use it as an alcoholic specimen. 

Works on birds for further reference. 

" Key to Birds of North America," Elliott Coues ; " Birds of North 
America," S. F. Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway ; Huxley's " Manual of 
Vertebrates " ; Owen's " Anatomy of Vertebrates " ; Audubon's " Birds 
of North America"; "Animal Locomotion," Pettigrew ; "Elements 



KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 



293 



of Embryology," Foster and Balfour; "Comparative Embryology," F. 
M. Balfour ; Yarrill's " British Birds " ; Samuels's " Birds of New Eng- 
land," etc. " The Auk" is the official publication (Cambridge) of the 
American Ornithologists' Union. Other magazines are " Nature," 
" Science," " American Naturalist," " Popular Science Monthly," etc. 
Good popular works are those of Brehm, Cassell, and Wood. 

Note. — The Migration of Birds. — The majority of the birds that 
breed in the northern and middle sections of the United States migrate 
to the South at the approach of cold weather, and return in the spring, 
thus making two long journeys every year. These flights are made by 
night and day, and small birds have been seen at night through a tele- 
scope at an estimated height of three miles. The great valleys, river- 
courses, and coast lines are generally followed, but numbers of our 
birds stop at Bermuda, showing that they either venture to sea, or are 
blown out. Flocks of birds alight at Tortugas, Florida, during the 
prevalence of northers, that must have flown across the Gulf of 
Mexico. Many of the European birds spend the winter in Africa, 
while those in the United States go as far south as Central America, 
the West Indies, and even South America. During these flights they 
often congregate at certain spots in vast numbers ; thus, on the Island 
of Heligoland, that lies in one of these paths, hundreds of different 
species are often seen resting, or at night whirling about the light- 
house, dashing against the glass, so that their dead bodies are found 
piled in heaps in the morning. 

The primary cause of migration is probably lack of food as cold 
weather comes on, while many other reasons are given. Tropical 
birds that breed at home do not migrate, and many of our birds, as the 
crow, English sparrow, and others, remain with us the entire season. 
Many of the birds of the Rocky Mountain country have a limited mi- 
gration, and some of the smallest birds make the longest journeys. 
Thus, the warblers {Dendroecd) and others, that breed as far north as 
Hudson Bay, winter in Mexico. As a rule, birds return to their sum- 
mer homes with great regularity, many varying season after season only 
a few hours. 

For further information on this subject see report of the American 
Ornithologists' Union ; " Distribution and Migration of North Ameri- 
can Birds," Baird ; the works of Wallace, Von Middeldorff, Hodgson, 
Giebel, Palmen, and Parker, and Newton's article on birds in " Ency- 
clopaedia Britannica," ninth edition, vol. iii. 



294 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



Class VII. — Mammalia {Milk-givers). 

General Characteristics. — We now come to the highest 
and most perfect animal forms. They are covered with 
hair instead of scales. The young are born alive,* and 
nourished by a fluid called milk, secreted in the mammary 
glands. About twenty-one hundred species of living 
mammals are known, three hundred and ten inhabiting 
North America. 

Skeleton. — The skeleton, that in the majority of birds 
is extremely light, is in the mammals solid, and the limb- 
cavities filled with 
marrow. Taking 
the cat (Fig. 321) as 
an example, we first 
note the cranium, era, 
or skull, that is united 
to the backbone or 
vertebral column by 
two occipital con- 
dyles. The lower jaw 
is composed of two 
pieces, and is joined 
directly to the skull, 
and not to the quad- 
rate bone, as we have 
seen in the birds and 
reptiles. The back- 
bone is divided into 
five divisions : First, the cervical or neck region, where 
the vertebrae generally number seven. In the cat they are 
small, in the whale they are pressed together, while in the 
long-necked giraffe each bone is lengthened out. Sec- 
ond, the dorsal or back region, the vertebrae of which 
generally number from ten to fifteen ; they support the 




7 89654 

Fig. 321. — Cat, with bones of right side drawn. 
Cra, cranium ; sc, scapula or shoulder- 
blade ; 1, humerus ; 2, radius and ulna ; 
3, carpus ; 4, phalanges ; 5, femur ; 6, tibia 
and fibula ; 7, tarsus ; 8, metatarsus ; 9, 
phalanges ; /, innominate bone, a number 
of bones combined, forming the pelvic 
arch ; v, vertebral column. (After Morse.) 



* See note on page 297. 



MAMMALIA. 



295 



ribs, that in turn inclose and protect the chest. Third, 
the lumbar or loin vertebrae, numbering from four to 
seven. Fourth, the sacral bones, that are anchylosed and 
form the sacrum ; these generally number from one to 
nine. Fifth, the caudal or tail vertebras, that are more 
movable one upon another than the others, and number 
from four to forty-six. The tail is a very useful member. 
In some of the monkeys it serves as a fifth hand ; in the 
dog it is used to express emotion, and in the horse, ant- 
eater, and many animals, as a protection from insects. 

Limbs. — The mammals generally have four limbs, and 
from this are termed quadrupeds, though in the whale the 
hinder pair are not present, or are rudimentary. In Fig. 
321 we see the fore-limb joined to the body by the shoul- 
der-blade or scapula, sc, and the clavicle or collar-bone. 
The first bone of the leg is the humerus, 1 ; then follow 
two bones joined together, the radius and ulna, 2, followed 
in turn by the carpus, 3, or wrist-bone, the metacarpals, 
that form the upper portion of the hand, and the phalan- 
ges, 4, or finger and toe bones. The hind-limbs in their 
parts resemble the fore ones, and are connected to the 
body by a number of bones that are joined together and 
known as the innominate bone, *, and constitute the pelvic 
arch. The upper bone of the leg is the femur or thigh, 
5 ; then follow the leg-bones, similar to the ulna and 
radius, but called the tibia and fibula, 6 ; then the tarsus 
or ankle-bones, 7, the metatarsus or bones of the foot, 8, 
and the bones of the toes or phalanges, 9. There are gen- 
erally five toes, but there are many exceptions, as the 
horse that walks on the toe-nail of its single toe, the ox 
on two toes, etc. The limbs are adapted to the habits 
of the animal. The sloths have long claws for clinging, 
and the moles powerful digging-claws. In the whales and 
seals they are paddles. 

Digestion. — The jaws of all mammals, except the whale- 
bone whales and a few others, are provided with teeth 



296 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

set in separate sockets. The first set, or milk teeth, are 
finally discarded and a permanent set attained, general- 
ly of four distinct kinds, adapted for various purposes : 
incisors, canines, premolars, and molars. With these, 
which differ much in different animals, the food is ground 
up or torn, and rudely prepared, mixed with saliva and 
swallowed, passing down the oesophagus into the stomach. 
Here it is mixed with a secretion known as gastric juice, 
and converted into chyme, finally passing into the smaller 
intestine, where it is brought in contact with various secre- 
tions, as bile, pancreatic juice, etc., and is known as chyle, 
then passing to the blood-vessels through the lacteal tubes ; 
thus a part of everything eaten is so much fuel for the 
system. From the small intestine follows a larger one 
through which all rejected matter passes. 

Circulation. — The heart of mammals is four-chambered, 
comprising two auricles and two ventricles. The blood 
is hot, red, and contains two kinds of corpuscles, red and 
colorless. The latter have a nucleus, are spherical, and ex- 
hibit movements similar to those of the Amoeba (Fig. 2). 
The red corpuscles are the most abundant, and are nearly 
circular. The impure blood from the body pours into the 
right auricle, from where it passes to the right ventricle, 
and thence to the lungs. Here it is changed into arterial 
blood by the oxygen of the air and passes back to the 
left auricle, then to the left ventricle, and finally is driven 
through the great aorta and sent flowing through innumer- 
able branches all over the body. 

Respiration. — The mammals breathe by lungs, two 
elastic, spongy bodies permeated with air-cells, each in- 
closed in a membranous sac called the pleura. They hang 
free in the cavity of the thorax. Air is taken in at the 
mouth and nostrils, and passes down the windpipe into 
the branches or bronchi, that do not connect with air-sacs 
in the body as in the birds. In this way the oxygen is 
brought in contact with the blood and aerates it. 



MAMMALIA. 297 

Nervous System. — The brain of mammals is larger than 
that of any of the preceding or lower forms, and extending 
from it is the long, protected cerebro-spinal cord with its 
innumerable nerve-branches. All the impulses of animals 
arise in the brain, that seems to send messages along the 
nerves to the limbs and various organs, and in this way- 
action is produced. That the nerves are the mediums of 
communication can be shown by severing them, the part 
so disconnected becoming powerless. 

Organs of Sight, Hearing, etc. — The mammals all pos- 
sess eyes, though in the mole they are almost useless. 
With the exception of some seals, the whales, and a few 
others, they have external ears. 

Development. — All mammals are born alive,* and differ 
from all preceding forms in nourishing their young with 
the secretion called milk. In some Carnivora the young 
are at first blind and helpless ; in others, as the herbivo- 
rous animals, the young immediately follow the parent. 
The young of marsupials are extremely minute and help- 
less when born. 

General Divisions. — The mammals are divided into 
three sub-classes : 1. Ornithodelphia, represented by the 
Monotremes ; 2. Didelphia, or the pouched animals ; 3. 
Monodelphia, or the placental mammals. 

Sub-Class I. — Ornithodelphia. 

Order I. The Monotremes (Monotremata). General 
Characteristics. — These strange animals, the lowest of the 
mammalia, are noted for their bird-like characteristics. 
They have long, flattened, or narrow beaks, and webbed 
feet ; they are confined to Australia and Tasmania. 

* As this work goes to press, a Sydney, Australia, scientist cables 
to the biological section of the British Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, now in session at Montreal, that Prof. Caldwell has 
made the remarkable discovery that the Australian monotremes lay 
eggs, or are oviparous. 



298 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



Spiny Ant-eater {Echidnidce)— These animals (Fig. 
322, A) are covered with spines like the hedgehog ; the 
bill is long, horny, and toothless, resembling that of a bird. 
The tongue is long, like that of the ant-eater, and the pal- 
ate armed with rows of sharp, tooth-like spines. Their 
claws are powerful and adapted for digging into the ant- 
hills where their food is obtained. They are valuable in 
destroying noxious ants. Three species are known. 




Fig. 322. — Group of egg-laying mammals. A, Echidna ; B, Ornithorhyn- 
chus swimming and rolled up ; C, nest of duck-bill in section. 



Duck-bill (Ornithorhynchidd). — The water mole (Fig. 
322, B), as it is sometimes called, has a broad, duck-like, 
horny bill (Fig. 323, A), containing eight broad, flat, horny 
teeth. They have no external ear. The body is covered 
with short, brown hair with an under-pelt ; the fore-feet 
are webbed (Fig. 323, C) beyond the claws, the hinder 
only to their base, the males possessing a bird-like spur 



MAMMALIA. 



299 



(Fig. 323, B). They live upon worms and vegetable mat- 
ter. Their nests are long burrows in the banks of streams, 




Fig. 323. — A, head of Ornithorhynchus, showing serrated bill ; B, hind-foot 
with spur, «, found on the males only ; C, webbed fore-foot. 

having an opening under water. At the farther end, twenty 
or thirty feet from the water, leaves and grass are deposited 
and the young reared. 



Sub-Class II. — Didelphia. 

Order I. Pouched Animals (Marsupia/ia). Gen- 
eral Characteristics. — In these animals the young are born 
in an immature state, in the great kangaroo being not over 
an inch in length, and immediately placed 
in a pouch or marsupium, where they re- 
main attached to the teats at the bottom 
of the pouch, the milk being forced down 
the throat by the muscular action of the 
mother. The young are prevented from 
suffocating by a peculiar modification of 
the breathing-organs. The pouch is sup- 
ported by two long, slender bones project- 
ing forward from and attached to the front 
of the pelvis. 

Opossum (Didelphidce). — In this fam- 
ily is the common opossum (Fig. 331), the only marsupial 
of the United States. It is about twenty inches in length, 




Fig. 324. — Opos- 
sum at birth. 



300 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



with a long, prehensile tail. The hair is white, tipped 
with brown. They live in the trees, eating fruit, eggs, and 
even small animals. When attacked, they feign death, 
thus often escaping. The young (Fig. 324) are placed in 
the pouch when extremely small, and nourished as other 
marsupials, and when older are frequently seen clinging 
to the mother, their tails curled about hers. The Yapock 
is a water-opossum from South America. The feet are 
webbed ; the tail is prehensile and scaly. They feed 
partly upon aquatic animals. 

Value. — In the United States about two hundred and fifty thou- 
sand skins are used yearly. The hair is used in felting, hats, etc. 







Fig. 325. — Chasropus. 



Native Cats (Dasyuridce). — These are carnivorous 
and insectivorous marsupials, ranging in size from a rat to 
a wolf. The Tasmanian wolf (Fig. 328) is the largest form. 
The marsupial bones are cartilaginous ; the pouch absent 



MAMMALIA. 



301 



or rudimentary ; the tail is long, powerful, and not pre- 
hensile. The thumbs of the hind-feet are either wanting 
or rudimentary ; the back is strongly marked with parallel 
bars of black. They are nocturnal in their habits, and 
confined to Australia and Tasmania. The Tasmanian 
devil (Fig. 328) has similar habits. 

The Bandicoots (Peramelidce). — The bandicoots of 
Australia and Van Diemen's Land are small, insectivorous 
marsupials, somewhat resembling kangaroos. The Chce- 
ropas is a remarkable little creature, resembling a pygmy 
deer (Fig. 325). All the toes but the fore ones are ex- 
tremely minute, and it is the only animal that walks upon 
two toes of each foot. It burrows. Allied to these forms 
is the Myrmecobius, a beautiful animal with a long, bushy 
tail and no pouch, the immature young clinging to the 
teats, only protected by hair. It preys upon ants, and 
only one species is known. 

Kangaroos {Macropodidce). — The kangaroos are re- 
markable for the development of the hind-limbs, by which 
they take enormous leaps of twenty-five feet or more. 
When resting, the hind-legs (Fig. 326) and tail form a 




Fig. 326. — A hind-foot of kangaroo. 



tripod. The tail is not used in leaping, as is generally 
supposed. The fore-legs are short. They attain a height 
of six feet, and are extremely fleet and powerful. The 
young are carried in the pouch, and often feed on grass 
from it as the mother moves along (Fig. 327), presenting 
a curious appearance. In the tree-kangaroo the limbs are 



302 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



nearly of the same length ; the claws are long and powerful, 
to assist in climbing. In strange contrast to the great kan- 
garoo is the Pandemeleon wallaby, twenty inches in length. 
The hare kangaroo is a powerful leaper. Mr. Gould re- 
cords one as leaping over his head when chased by dogs. 
Fossil kangaroos are found in Australian cave-deposits. 
The Diprotodon was a kangaroo as large as an elephant. 

Value. — Kangaroo fur and leather are somewhat used. 




Fig. 327. — Australian marsupials. Kangaroos: 1, leaping; 2, showing 
young in the pouch ; 3, flying phalanger ; 4, koala or native bear, with 
a young one on its back. 



Wombats (Phascolomyidce). — The animals of this 
family are confined to Australia. They are tailless, about 
the size of the badger, with flat heads, and short legs, 
adapted for digging. They feed upon vegetation, and bur- 



MAMMALIA. 



303 



row in the ground (Fig. 328). An extinct wombat as 
large as a tapir has been found in Australia. The wom- 
bats are valued as food. Allied are the phalangers, the 
koala that carries its young on its back (Fig. 327), and 
many others. 




Fig. 328. — Tasmanian marsupials. 1, wombats 
Tasmanian wolf. 



2, Tasmanian devil ; 3, 



Sub-Class III. — Monodelphia {Placental Mammals). 

General Characteristics. — In this sub-class are included 
all the rest of the mammals. They are called placental 
because the young, which are larger when born than the 
preceding forms, and generally perfect, are nourished 
up to the time of birth by a vascular membrane, pene- 
trated by veins and arteries, known as the placenta. 

Order I. Edentata {toothless). General Character- 
istics. — The animals of this family have no incisor teeth, 
some being entirely toothless. In some, scales take the 
place of hair. 



304 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



Sloths (Bradypodid<z). — The sloths are confined to 
South America, east of the Andes. Their bodies are cov- 
ered with long gray and black hair, that, in its resemblance 
to moss and the bark of trees, affords them protection. 
The three-toed sloth is called Ai, from the plaintive sound 
it utters. Their limbs are long and slender, the hinder 
pair the shortest, and armed with powerful claws, by which 
they cling to limbs, passing their entire time in hanging 
positions (Fig. 331), being helpless on the ground. The 
two-toed sloth is similar in general appearance. The Me- 
gatherium, a gigantic extinct sloth, was eighteen feet long 
and eight feet high. The Megalonyx was as large as a 




Fig. 329.— African imperfect-toothed animals. Aard-vark or Cape ant-eater 
in the background, and scaly manis or pangolin in the foreground. 



rhinoceros — huge creatures, that pulled down large trees 
with their powerful limbs and claws. Sloths are eaten to 
some extent. 

Ant-Eat ers {Myrmecophagidce). — These remarkable 



MAMMALIA. 305 

animals (Fig. 331) are found in South America. The muz- 
zle is extremely long, the mouth toothless, the tongue of 
great length and used to gather up ants, the capture being 
helped by a viscid saliva that covers it. The body is cov- 
ered with thick, coarse hairs, that are so developed upon 
the tail that it completely covers the body, affording pro- 
tection to the young that cling to the mother's back, the 
family resembling a bush of dried herbage. The claws 
are extremely powerful, and used in tearing open the nests 
of ants, and persons have been killed by them. The little 
ant-eaters have two toes, a prehensile tail, and live in trees, 
finding protection in the resemblance to the bark and moss. 
Allied to these is the aard-vark, or South African ant-eater 
(Fig. 329), that has long ears, a pig-like snout, and burrows 
in the ground, coming out at night to prey upon ants. 

Armadillos (Dasyfiodidce). — These are the most won- 
derful of all mammals, being covered with horny plates or 
scales. The armor is arranged in different regions : one 
shield covers the 
head, another 
the shoulders, 
and another the 
rump, while be- 
tween the two 
latter are several 
bands allowing 

free movement. FlG - 33°-— Glyptodon, a gigantic extinct armadillo. 

The tail is pro- 
tected by rings, and the legs by horny tubercles. The 
muzzle is pointed, as in the aard-vark, the ears are long, 
and claws powerful, adapted for digging (Fig. 331). The 
giant armadillo attains a length of four feet. In the CJila- 
mydophorus the back only is protected by an armor made 
up of square, cubical plates, connected by a leathery de- 
velopment. The fore-claws are very powerful. A fossil 
armadillo, found near the La Plata, was as large as a 




306 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



rhinoceros. The Glyptodon (Fig. 330) had a solid armor 
and was eight feet long. 

Value. — The native Botocudos use the armor of the tail as a 
trumpet, and the flesh is eaten. 




Fig. 331. 



opossum. 



Imperfect-toothed animals : 2, sloth ; 3, ant-bear 
4, armadillo. 



Pangolins {Manidce). — These (Fig. 329) are the only 
Edentates found out of America, living in Africa and 
Asia. They are covered with scales arranged like tiles. 
The tail is extremely long, the claws powerful and long, 
so that they walk upon the sides of their feet. When mo- 
lested they roll up into balls like the armadillo. 

Order II. Sea- Cows (Sirenia). General Character- 
istics. — The sea-cows are amphibious, milk-giving animals, 
somewhat resembling the fishes in form. The teeth are 
well developed, the molars having flattened or ridged 



MAMMALIA. 



307 



crowns, adapted for grinding food. The nostrils are 
upon the upper part of the snout ; the fore-limbs are 
fin-like, and they have five fingers ; the hind-limbs are 
absent, their place seemingly taken by a horizontal, whale- 
like tail. 

Manatee (Manatidce). — The Florida manatee (Fig. 
332), that is now extremely rare, ranges from the Amazon 




Fig. 332. — The manatee, or sea-cow, grazing-. 



to southern Florida, and attains a length of nine feet. 
The tail is horizontal, and semi-oval in shape. Another 
species is found in Africa. They occasionally come upon 
the shore. The young, in nursing, are sometimes sup- 
ported by the flippers of the mother. 

Note. — Steller's manatee {Rhytina Stelleri) was an Arctic form of 
gigantic proportions, attaining a length of thirty-five feet, and a weight 
of nearly four tons. The skin was leathery, the fore-limbs without 
fingers, but overgrown with coarse hairs ; the tail resembled that of 
the whale. They had no teeth, but two horny masticating plates, one 
in the gum and the other in the lower jaw. Herds of these animals 
were discovered by Steller at Behring Island in 1741, and twenty-eight 
years later they were extinct, having been destroyed by man. (For a 
list of animals that have become extinct within a few hundred years, 
see article by the author in " Lippincott's Magazine," June, 18S3.) 



3o8 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



The dugong is peculiar to the countries adjacent to the 
Indian Ocean. The tail is shaped like that of the whale ; 
the fore-limbs are short ; the muzzle protected by numer- 
ous stiff bristles. They attain a length of twenty-five feet, 




Fig. 333. — A, skull of female dugong ; the colossal tusks in the upper jaw- 
never pierce the thick, fleshy lip, although they continue to grow with 
the jaw. a, the root of the tusk ; Z>, the point. B, adult dugong, show- 
ing whale-like tail. 



and congregate in herds near the mouths of rivers, brows- 
ing upon the aquatic vegetation. The tusks of the female 
are completely incased in the upper jaw (Fig. 333). 

Value. — Hide, oil, and bones. 



MAMMALIA. 309 

Order III. Whales (Cetacea). General Characteris- 
tics. — We now come to the largest living animals, milk- 
givers, that live entirely in the water, and are in form fish- 
like. The fore-limbs are paddles, having bones similar to 
those of the arm and hand of man ; the hind-limbs absent 
or rudimentary, the caudal extremity being provided with 
a horizontal, fish-like tail that is the principal locomotive 
organ. They are often confused with fishes, but are vivip- 
arous, suckling their young (Fig. 334), giving rich, creamy 




Fig. 334. — The humpback-whale suckling her young. (After Scammon.) 

milk. They breathe air by means of lungs, having a pro- 
vision that enables them to remain under water for over 
an hour without breathing. This consists of a large num- 
ber of reserve blood-vessels that line the interior of the 
chest and spaces between the ribs, only a portion of this 
blood passing into circulation from time to time. The 
nostrils are upon the top of the head, and form blow-holes 
through which vapor, not water* is forced. The jaws of 

* This error is found in many works, but the whale no more spouts 
water through its nostrils than can a human being. The so-called 
spouting is vapor, the moisture of the breath and mucus from the 
nostrils. 



3io 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



whales are either armed with conical teeth or plates of 
fibrous matter called whalebone. The amount of blood 
in the whale is enormous ; the aorta or great artery from 
the heart being alone one foot across, and probably at 
every pulsation of the great heart ten or fifteen gallons of 
blood are thrown out. The cetaceans range in size from 




Fig. 335. — White whale {Beluga catodon), a cetacean that has been carried 
alive from America to England by steamer, covered with , sea-weed and 
dashed frequently with water. 

the porpoise, three to five feet long, to the rorqual, one 
hundred and three feet in length. 

Toothed Whales (Delphinoidea). — This group in- 
cludes the dolphins, porpoises, white whales, etc. The 
common dolphin has long, extended jaws armed with from 
forty to forty-seven conical teeth, and a prominent dorsal 
ridge or fin. The porpoises,* the orca,f or killer, the 
blackfish, or round-headed grampus, the white whale, Be- 
luga (Fig. 335), sperm-whale, and narwhal are allies. 

* A friend of the author, in attempting to capture a herd of por- 
poises, drove them into a creek, and the capture was about to commence, 
when the porpoises rushed towai-d the boats, several leaping completely 
over them, and thus reaching the sea. 

f The orca also preys upon the young cf the walrus. In the 
stomach of one have been found the remains of thirteen porpoises and 
fourteen seals. 



MAMMALIA. 



311 



Whalebone- 
whales (Balcenoi- 

dea). — In the em- 
bryo whales of this 
group minute teeth 
are present. They 
are absorbed before 
birth, and after it 
their place is taken 
by baleen, or plates 
of whalebone, that 
grow out and hang 
down upon each side 
in from three to four 
hundred plates, like 
saws on a rack, often 
attaining a length of 
ten feet, weighing 
in all one ton (Fig. 
336). The outer 
edges are smooth, 
the inner frayed into 
numerous bristles, 
that form a rude 
strainer. Ordinari- 
ly, the lips of the 
lower jaw cover 
them, but, when 
feeding, the enor- 
mous lips flatten 
out, presenting the 
appearance of a 
scoop with whale- 
bone sides. Into 
this trap myriads of jelly-fishes 
tangled in the strainer ; when a 




are swept, becoming en- 
mouthful is obtained, the 



312 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 




sides of the lips are raised, the tongue presses the water 
out through the strainer, the jellies passing down the ex- 
tremely small throat, that is only adapted for this kind of 
food. 

The Greenland whale (Balcena mysticcetus), Balcena cis- 
arctica, and austra/is, are familiar forms. 

Value. — A single whale, captured by a New London vessel in 
1884, realized for whalebone, $12,230 ; oil, $3,490 ; total, $15,720. 
Spermaceti and ivory are other productions. 

Order IV. Insect-eating Mammals (Insectivord). 
General Characteristics. — The animals of this order prey 

upon insects almost entirely. 
The teeth are well developed, 
the molars being prism-shaped, 
with acute cusps or points (Fig. 
337). The feet are provided 
with claws, often enormously de- 

FlG. 337.— Skull of an insect- veloped. 

eating mammal, showing S hreWS (&««<&).— In ap- 

the numerous pointed teeth. . 

pearance the shrews (Fig. 339) 
resemble the rats. They have a wide distribution, but 
are not found in Australia or South America. The broad- 
nosed shrew (Sorex) is a common American form. The 
nose is long, canine teeth absent, the ears large, tail con- 
spicuous and scantily supplied with hair. This shrew is 
one of the smallest quadrupeds on the continent, weigh- 
ing only forty-seven grains. They secrete a protective 
odor, contained in two glands at the base of the tail. They 
burrow in the ground, and are mainly nocturnal in their 
habits. Moles (Talpidce). — The moles are confined to 
the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. In 
America, the star-nosed mole (Condylura) (Fig. 338) ranges 
from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Its length is about four 
inches to the tail, which is of nearly the same length. The 
nose terminates in numerous star-like fringes, that aid it in 



MAMMALIA. 



313 




FlG. 338.— Star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata) : 
a, jaws ; b, end of nose. 



obtaining food. They are found near streams and moist 
spots. The common mole (Scalops aquaticus, Linn.) (Fig. 
339) leaves its 
traces in up- 
turned ridges in 
every field of 
the Eastern 
States. They 
attain a length 
of five inches. 
The fore -feet 
are greatly de- 
veloped for 
digging ; their 
eyes are com- 
paratively use- 
less, being ex- 
tremely small,* 

giving rise to the impression that they are eyeless. Their 
nests are underground, and their principal food earth- 
worms. 

Allied are the Solenodon of Hayti and the Tanrec of 
Madagascar. 

Value. — Fur, and as insect-destroyers. A single mole is estimated 
to eat 20,000 insects in a year. One has been known to devour 432 
maggots and 250 grubs in four days ; another ate 872 maggots and 540 
grubs in twelve days. In another instance two moles in nine days de- 
voured 341 grubs, 193 earth-worms, 25 caterpillars, and a mouse, its 
bones and skin. 

* The eyes are deeply imbedded, but are perfect, the lens consist- 
ing of a very small number of minute and little altered embryonic 
cells. The retina is more simple than generally seen in other ver- 
tebrates. In the embryo mole both eyes are connected with the 
brain by optic nerves, but in adults the optic nerve has degenerated, 
sometimes one and again both, so that, though the image may be 
possibly formed in the eye, it is with difficulty communicated to the 
brain. 

14 



314 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



Hedgehog (Erinaceidci)* — We now come to the 
true hedgehogs (Fig. 339), that are not found in the 
western hemisphere, and are characterized by a thick 




Fig. 339. — A group of insect-eaters: 1, common shrew; 2, hedgehog; 
3, mole ; 4, bat. 



growth of sharp, spinous bristles upon the back, that, 
when the animal rolls itself into a ball, form a perfect 
protection. 

Value. — Skin and spines. 

* The nest is generally underground, and carefully made, and 
here the adults, as a rule, pass the cold months in a state of hiber- 
nation — a sleep so deep that no outward sign of breathing can be de- 
tected. In Dr. Hall's experiments with a hibernating animal suddenly 
decapitated, the heart continued to beat for a long time, as if possessed 
with an independent life. In another, where the brain and entire 
spinal cord were removed, the heart continued to beat for two hours, 
as if nothing had happened, and twelve hours after would contract 
when touched. 



MAMMALIA. 



315 



Flying Colugo (Galeopithecidci). — The animals of this 
family, found in Molucca, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Philip- 
pine Islands, are the highest forms of the Insectivora, and 
are provided with a membrane similar to that of the flying 
squirrel, except that it also connects the tail (Fig. 340) 




f%^%% 



Fig. 340. — A group of flying mammals : 1, taguan, or flying squirrel, 
rodent ; 2, colugo, an insectivorous animal. 



and the hind-legs, forming a complete parachute. When 
climbing, the membrane is folded closely, but as they 
spring into the air with limbs out it spreads out, support- 
ing them in leaps of three or four hundred feet. In this 
way they pass from tree to tree, carrying their young. 

Order V. Bats [Chiroptera — Wing- handed). General 
Characteristics. — From the Colugo we pass to the bats 
(Figs. 339 and 341), which are characterized by a remark- 
able modification of the fore-limbs for purposes of flight. 
The fingers of the fore-arm are greatly elongated, and sup- 



3i6 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



port a thin, leathery membrane, that commences at the side 
of the neck and extends to the hind-legs, partly or wholly 
encompassing the tail, and is used with all the freedom of 

a bird's wing. 
The sternum is 
slightly keeled, 
as in the birds, 
and the teeth 
resemble in gen- 
eral those of 
the Insectivora. 
They are noc- 
turnal, and hang 
by their hind- 
legs or arms in 
resting. The 
t thumb is free, 

and forms a hook for holding and walking ; the first 
finger is also generally provided with a claw, and in mov- 
ing on the ground the bat uses its thumb, while its other 
fingers point backward. Some species have 
peculiar disk-like clinging organs (Fig. 
342). The eyes are extremely minute, es- 
pecially in the long-eared bats, yet, even 
when deprived of these organs, they show 
marvelous skill in avoiding obstructions. 




Fig. 341. — Skeleton of a bat (lettered to compare 
with bird's skeleton, p. 226). fa, fore-arm ; ii\ 
wrist ; t, thumb ; ha, hand ; h, heel ; f foot. 




Fig. 342. — Suc- 
torial disk on 
the thumb of 
Thyroptera 
tricolor. 






Note. — At the approach of cold weather the bats 
are deprived of food, and, being unable to migrate 
as the birds, retire to caves and secluded spots and 
sleep away the cold months in a state of hibernation. 
So perfect is this sleep, that the animals have been 
placed in illuminating gas without perceptible effect ; 
and in other experiments the air about them, upon being analyzed, 
did not show evidences of having been breathed. They and other 
hibernators are supposed during this period to obtain nourishment by 
absorbing the fat that has accumulated on the under side of the neck, 
in the so-called hibernation-glands. 



MAMMALIA. 



317 



Order VI. Gnawing Animals (Rodentid). General 
Characteristics. — The animals of this order have no canine 
teeth, but in each jaw are two powerful, chisel-like incisors 
(Fig. 343), that are renewed 
as fast as they wear away. 
The molar teeth are flat, 
and seldom exceed four in 
each jaw. The lower jaw 
is so articulated with the 
skull that the motion is 
forward and back instead 
of horizontal. The limbs 
are adapted for walking, 




flying, or bur- 



Fig. 343. — Skull of a gnawing animal 
(Rodent), showing the large chisel- 
teeth in front, and the gap between 
these and the hind teeth. 



climbing, 
rowing. 

Hares and Rabbits (Leporidce). — The hares (Fig. 
344) and rabbits have a wide geographical range, and are 
distinguished by long ears, the presence of small teeth be- 
hind each of 
the incisors, 
powerfully de- 
veloped hind- 
legs, and short, 
bushy tails. 
The fore - feet 
are five -toed, 
the hinder ones 
having four. 
Many have the 
feet lined with 
hair beneath. 
The whi te 
hare {Lepus 
Americanus) 
and gray rabbit are well-known species. The former 
ranges from Virginia to Labrador. The water-rabbit of 




Fig. 344. — European hare {Lepus timidus). 



3i8 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

the Mississippi region takes to the water when pursued, 
and swims and dives equally well. The jackass-rabbit 
(Z. callotis) is remarkable for its long ears, while in the 
Alpine hare of the Rocky Mountains they are extremely 
short. Hares generally nest on the surface, while rabbits 
burrow. 

Value. — Five million rabbit-skins are used annually in the fur- 
trade, and four and a half million hare-skins. 

Note. — The domestic varieties of rabbits have all sprung from the 
English variety. They live in bands, burrow, and are so prolific that 
it has been estimated that, under the most favorable circumstances, 
the progeny of a single pair in four years would amount to a million ! * 

Allied are the Cavies (Caviidce), found in South Amer- 
ica and the adjoining islands, seemingly taking the place 
of hares, the Agoutis, Guinea-pigs, the Capybara, the 
largest rodent, and the Paca, that forms burrows in the 
ground. Porcupines (Hystricidce). — These rodents (Fig. 
345) have the body and tail covered with stiff, rigid, barbed 
quills, from three to twelve inches in length. The molar 
teeth are sixteen in number, and the tongue is rough and 
armed with horny scales. They inhabit the temperate re- 
gions of the eastern and western hemispheres, living in 
burrows, and in the winter passing through a partial hiber- 
nation. The white-haired or Canada porcupine is nearly 
three feet long, including the tail. The spines are- white, 
with darkened tips, the long hairs growing among them 
being similarly colored, and the fur a dark brown. They 
live upon bark and twigs, and also upon corn and various 
grains. The yellow-haired porcupine is much larger. 
The crested porcupine of Europe and Asia has spines 
a foot long ; those upon the tail being hollow, open, and 
attached by slender pedicles. When not in use the spines 
lie flat, but are raised suddenly with a loud, crackling 

* Rabbits have increased so in certain parts of Australia that a 
famine is threatened. One colony has lost two thousand sheep from 
starvation, the rabbits having eaten up the grass. 



MAMMALIA. 



319 



noise. The accounts of their spines being thrown are 
fabulous.* The Brazilian porcupine climbs trees and 
clings to them by its prehensile tail. The young, general- 
ly two, are produced in the latter part of spring. 

Value. — Quills are used in commerce, as pen-holders, etc. 




Fig. 345.— A group of rodants : 1, harvest-mousa ; 2, porcupine ; 3, mole- 
rat. 



Allied are the Chinchillas (Cfa'nc/iil/idce), that live upon 
the Andes of Chili and Peru, at an elevation of twelve 
thousand feet, Their fur is exceedingly valuable. 

Note. — The allied Viscachas inhabit the lofty plateaus of the 
Andes, sixteen thousand feet above the sea. They burrow, and have a 
remarkable habit of collecting about their holes eveiy curious object, so 

* In experiments witnessed by the author, a rabbit was pierced by 
quills so quickly that it was easy to see how the illusion of their being 
thrown first originated. The blows were struck entirely by the tail, 
and so rapidly that the eye at first could not follow the movement. 



320 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



that quantities of material are found there. A watch lost by a traveler 
was afterward found in front of a hole. 

Squirrels (Sciuridce). — The squirrels have a wide 
geographical range. They have powerful, compressed in- 
cisor teeth, prominent ears, the snout and upper lip di- 
vided, and long tails with hairs generally arranged along 
the sides. The gray and black squirrels attain a length 
of two feet, including the tail. They vary much in color, 
from black to all shades of gray. The gray squirrels make 
wonderful migrations, passing over the country in vast num- 




FlG. 346. — American chipmunk. 



bers, swimming streams, and divesting the land as they pass. 
The tufted-eared squirrel, of the San Francisco Hills, is 
one of the finest American species. The striped squirrels 
(chipmunks) (Fig. 346) have enormous cheek-pouches, 
used in carrying food to their nests. The flying squir- 
rels (Fig. 340) have a fur-covered membrane, extending 



MAMMALIA. 



321 




Fig. 347.— Prairie-dog, and the owl and snake 
that live in its burrow. 



from the sides and connecting the fore and hind limbs, 
which enables them to leap great distances, the membrane 
acting as a parachute, held out by the limbs, and bony, 
boom-like appendages attached to them. 

The marmots are represented in this country by the 

prairie-dog (Fig. 

347). They in- _- _ ~ ^ / "~"V=-^U ^ 
habit the plains cf 
the West. The fur 
is reddish brown, 
and lighter be- 
neath. They live 
in burrows in com- 
munities, and utter 
a sharp chirp re- 
sembling a bark. 
The burrowing- 
owls and rattle- 
snakes live with them, the latter probably preying upon 
the young of both. 

The woodchuck is common in North America, attain- 
ing a large size. Their fur is a grizzly color. 

Value. — Six million squirrel-skins are used yearly by the trade. 
The hairs of the tail are made into delicate paint-brushes. 

Beavers {Castoridce). — The beavers are represented in 
America by one species. They are characterized by a 
broad, flattened, scaled tail, that is used as a scull in 
locomotion. They have five toes upon each foot, those 
upon the hinder ones being webbed. They are aquatic 
in their habits, living upon the bark of trees and other vege- 
tation, or meat, when domesticated. They are famed for 
their industry and intelligence in the construction of their 
homes.* The young, from two to eight, are produced in 

* The beavers show great intelligence in making their habitations. 
As it is necessary that the house should be under water, a small stream 



322 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 




Fig. 348. — The beaver (Castor jiber), a gnawing water-animal, showing its 
dam and method of felling trees. 

is selected and dammed. Large trees, eighteen inches in diameter, 
are gnawed down (Fig. 348) and placed in position, and, if distant from 
the stream, a canal is built, often five hundred feet long, by which logs 
and food are floated to their homes. The logs are arranged against 
the current, curving up-stream, the interstices being filled with mud 
and other material. In working, the small matter is carried in the 
fore-paws, the webbed hinder ones and the tail being the organs of 
locomotion, and the latter perhaps used in moving logs and stones. 
The dam completed, the house is built underwater, while burrows are 
made in the neighboring banks to be used as a last resort. The houses 



MAMMALIA. 323 

the month of May, attaining their growth in eighteen 
months, and living for nearly twenty years. They were 
formerly common in the New England States, where the 
remains of their dams can still be seen ; they are gradu- 
ally becoming extinct. Allied to the beaver is the curious 
Sewellel (Haplodoji rufus) of the mountains of Oregon and 
Washington Territory. It is nocturnal, burrows in the 
ground, and is about the size of a muskrat. 

Value. — Twenty thousand beavers are taken yearly in Asia, and 
two hundred thousand in America. The incisors are used by the In- 
dians as chisels, knives, and ornaments. Beaver-leather is used, and 
castoreum in the manufacture of perfumery. 




Fig. 349. — The Myopotamus coypu, a valuable fur-bearing animal, at home 
in either salt or fresh water in South America. 

Rats (Afuridd). — In this family are the rats, mice, 
and their allies that are very generally distributed over 

are made of mud, and two-storied, the upper being out of water, in 
which the families live, while below are stored the provisions for the 
winter. The doors or openings connect with the water. The dams and 
home are repaired year after year, wood for the purpose being collected 
in the autumn, and when frozen the work is extremely solid. 



324 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

the globe. The upper lips are divided, the snout acute, 
and the ears generally naked. The Bandicoot rat is the 
largest, attaining in India a length of fourteen inches. 
The Norway rat attains a length of eight or ten inches, 
and is of a rusty brown color. They are very intelligent 
and prolific. They came originally from Central Asia, 
appearing first in Russia in 1737, crossing in vessels to 
America in 1775. This is the ordinary wharf rat. The 
black rat emigrated to this country in 1544. The musk- 
rat is an aquatic form, with a flattened tail and webbed 
hind-feet, and erects houses under water similar to those 
of the beaver. The coypu (Fig. 349), of the Chonos 
archipelago, is an allied form, also common in the streams 

:S\ I . _- 




Fig. 350. — The lemming {Myodes lemmus). 

of South America. The house mouse is an importation 
from Europe and Asia. The European harvest mice (Fig. 
345) are noted as nest-builders, forming them by weaving 
spears of grass about stalks of grain. The American field 
mouse {Arvicola) nests under ground in spring, on the 
surface in midsummer, and on the surface beneath the 
snow in winter. It does not hibernate. The lemmings 



MAMMALIA. 325 

(My odes) of northern Europe (Fig. 350), famous for their 
migrations,* are allied forms. 

The Lophio7iiys Imhausi belongs to this family, and is 
one of the most remarkable examples of defensive mimicry 
in the animal kingdom. They inhabit the fissures of the 
rocks in Nubia and Arabia. Allied are the pouched rats, 
hamsters, and the jerboas, or jumping-mice, etc. 

Value. — Three million American muskrat-skins are used as furs 
annually ; also used as felting, and the musk in perfumery. The skins 
of common rats are used as thumbs for kid gloves. 

Order VII. Hoofed Animals (Ungulata). General 
Characteristics. — The animals of this comprehensive order 
are the most useful to man, as the camel, horse, pig, etc. 
Some appear to walk upon their toes, which are incased 
in horny hoofs, as the horse, while others are provided 
with blunt, broad nails. 

Hyrax (Hyracoidea). — These curious animals (Fig. 
351) resemble somewhat the rabbit, and have feet that 
recall the rhinoceros. They have long, curved incisors, 
and feet provided with pads ; the toes being incased in 
hoofs, four in front and three behind. They are confined 
to Africa and adjacent countries, and conceal themselves 
in holes and crevices, living in communities. When feed- 
ing, one acts as a sentinel, giving a shrill, prolonged cry as 
a warning. The Syrian Hyrax is supposed to be the shop- 

* These migrations are caused by a naturally restless instinct and 
often by a lack of food. The lemmings on the lower plateau move 
first, and the numbers are gradually swelled, being added to by births 
on the march. They swim rivers, and in coming to the sea are lost in 
it, thinking it a river. In the Brazilian province of Parana a rat-plague, 
that devastates the country, occurs about every thirty years, and is simul- 
taneous with the dying out of the taquara or bamboo, upon the seeds 
of which the rats feed. In Ceylon the dying down of Strobilanthes 
every seven years causes a similar plague, and in Chili the rat-swarms 
are coincident with the destruction of a species of bamboo (colligue) 
every fifteen or twenty years. 



326 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



han of the Bible, and, as Solomon has said, they are " feeble 
folk," although they have " their dwelling in the rock." 

Value. — The Hyraceum in the manufacture of perfumery. 




Fig. 2>5i-—Hy rax Capensis. 



Elephants (Proboscidea). — The elephants are distin- 
guished by their large size, often weighing three tons, and 
the presence of a trunk or proboscis (Fig. 352), that is 

a prolongation of 
the nose and up- 
per lip six or 
eight feet in 
length, made up 
of forty thousand 
or more muscles, 
so arranged as to 
give the greatest 
diversity of mo- 
tion. The ex- 
tremity bears the 
two openings of 
the nostrils, and 
is produced on 
its upper surfaces 
into a finger-like 
process endowed with an exquisite sense of touch. The 
upper incisor teeth are greatly developed into tusks, that 




Fig. 352. — Various uses of the trunk of the ele- 
phant : 1, drinking ; 2, pulling grass ; 3, wash- 
ing. 



MAMMALIA. 



32/ 



attain a length sometimes of nine feet, a girth of twenty- 
two inches, and a weight of two hundred pounds each, 
with which they can toss a tiger thirty feet or more. There 
are no incisors in the lower jaw ; the canines are absent, 
and the molars are large, ridged transversely, and filled 
with cement or crusta petrosa. The head is extremely mas- 
sive, but not indicative of the size of the brain, the upper 
portion containing numbers of air-cells. The limbs are 
powerful and five-toed, the feet resting on broad pads. 
The Asiatic species has small ears and an oblong head, 




Fig. 353. — Asiatic elephant, showing how used by man. 



while in the African the ears are immense, the head round, 
and the forehead convex. They roam in herds. The 
young in the Indian species weigh about two hundred and 
thirteen pounds at birth, and are thirty-four and a half 
inches in height. Individuals have been known to live 
one hundred and thirty years. 

The mastodon and mammoth are extinct elephants of 
this country, Europe, and Asia. The latter was hairy, and 



328 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

had tusks fifteen feet long. Several specimens have been 
found in the ice in Siberia, and, though untold ages old, 
were perfectly preserved. They were contemporaneous 
with early man. An extinct pygmy Maltese elephant was 
only three feet high. So-called white elephants are merely 
albinos, and never pure white. 

Value. — In 1880 nearly seven hundred tons of elephant-ivory was 
imported into Great Britain alone, and to supply the yearly demand 
one hundred thousand elephants are destroyed. They are also used as 
beasts of burden and laborers (Fig. 353). 

Uneven-toed Ungulates (Perissodactyld). Tapir 
(Tapiridd). — The animals of this family are distinguished 
by their short, fleshy, proboscis-like nose (Fig. 354). They 
have four toes on each front foot, and three on each hind 
one. The skin is dark and nearly hairless, the neck bear- 
ing a fleshy crest. The South American tapir has a wide 
range, and in the Andes is found twelve thousand feet 
above the sea. Their habits are partly aquatic and noc- 
turnal. The Malay tapir is black, with the exception of 
a prominent white spot upon the rump. The young are 
spotted and striped in a beautiful manner. 

Rhinoceros (Rhinocerontidci). — The animals of this 
family rank next to the elephant in point of size, and are 
peculiar to Africa, India, and adjacent islands. They are 
extremely bulky, with bodies covered with a naked, armor- 
like skin deposited in folds. They have incisors in both 
jaws; upon the muzzle grow one or two horns two or 
three feet long, composed of agglutinated, hair-like fibers, 
having no connection with the bone, and in some species 
being movable. 

The Indian rhinoceros (./?. Indicus) is one of the most 
powerful, being nearly ten feet long, and attaining a weight 
of three tons. They have a single horn, sometimes three 
feet long, that forms a formidable weapon. The Sumatran 
species has two horns. 



MAMMALIA. 



329 




Note. — Remains of extinct rhinoceroses are found in England, 
France, and Germany, that were contemporary with early man. In 177 1 
a complete hairy rhinoceros melted out of the ice in the river Wilni, Sibe- 
ria, where it had been thousands of years. The horn was four feet long. 

Value. — Horns, hide, etc. 

Horse (Equidce). — This family comprises the horse, 
ass, zebra, and quagga, animals that have a single perfect 
toe upon each foot. There are two undeveloped splints, 



330 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



however, under the skin, that tell an interesting story in 
the ancestry of the family.* The domestic horse (E. 
caballus) came originally from the Old World, and is not 
found now in the wild state except where it has been re- 
leased by man, as the mustang of South America and the 
muzir of Tartary. 

Ponies are dwarf horses, produced in cool countries, 
as Shetland. The wild ass (E. onager) ranges in herds 
from the Indies to Mesopotamia. They are distinguished 
by long ears, the tail ending in a tuft. The hinny and 
mule are hybrids of the ass (E. asinus) and a horse. Four 
species of zebra are known in Asia and Africa. They are 
striped transversely with dark and white bands. The 
voice of the quagga of Africa resembles the bark of a dog. 
The onagga of Africa is smaller than the ass. They are 
dark bay with black stripes, the tail and legs being white. 
The peculiar marking is protective. 

Value. — Horses, mules, asses, etc., are the most valuable of do- 
mestic animals ; almost every part of the animal is valued in trade. 



* Professors Marsh and Huxley, especially the former, have made 
interesting discoveries concerning the fossil horse, and its ancestry is 
more complete than that of any other animal. The remains are found 
in the Tertiary beds of North America. The earliest horse was the 
eohippus (Eocene time), as large as a fox. The following is the gene- 
alogy of the horse : 

In Front Hind No. of In 

America. Toes. Toes. Teeth. Europe. 



Period. 



( Recent . . . 
7. •< and 

( Upper Pliocene 

6. Upper Pliocene . 



5. Lower Pliocene 
4. Upper Miocene 
3. Lower Miocene 
2. Upper Eocene 
1. Lower Eocene 



Equus ) 
Pliohippus 



2 splints 2 splints 
1 1 



2 splints 2 splints 

1 large 1 large 

Protohippus 7, lT 

^ 2 small 2 small 

Miohippus 3 3 

Mesohippus ^^ 3 

Orohippus 4 3 

Eohippus ^ ^i;^,: 3 



40 



42 



Equus. 
Equus. 



1 splint 



44 Hipparion. 

44 Anchitherium. 

44 — 

44 — 

44 — 



MAMMALIA. 



331 



Even-toed Ungulates (Artiodactyla). Hippopota- 
mus {Hippopotamidce), two species. — These huge creatures 
inhabit many of the great rivers of Africa. The body is 
extremely large, the legs short, the feet having four toes, 
each one being hoofed. The head is large, and the gape 
enormous. The teeth are of large size, and often number 
forty, and are used in cutting the bark from trees, which 
forms a prominent feature of their food. They are noc- 
turnal animals, and are aquatic in their habits. They 
formerly lived as far north as England. 
Value. — Hide, and ivory from the teeth. 

Swine (Suidci). — The swine are characterized by four 
toes upon each foot, the anterior digits being furnished 
with strong hoofs. The head is pointed, the snout blunt, 
terminating in an 
organ adapted for 
rooting, the ears 
large, and the skin 
covered with bris- 
tles. The com- 
mon hog is a de- 
scendant of the 
wild boar, an in- 
habitant of the 
forests of Europe 
and Asia. The 
latter is extreme- 
ly fierce. The masked boar of southeastern Africa, the 
Babiroiissa^ an inhabitant of the islands of the Indian 
Archipelago (Fig. 355), and the wart-hog, are allies. The 
peccaries (Dicoty/es) are American representatives of the 
family, inhabiting Mexico and South America. 

Value. — Flesh, hide, hair, hoofs, etc. 

Deer (Cervidce). — These and the following hoofed ani- 
mals are generally called ruminants, from the fact that the 




i-IG. 355. — Babirous^a. 



332 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



food or cud is chewed twice before it is finally digested.* 
The molar teeth have two double, crescent-shaped folds, 
and, in biting, the incisors of the lower jaw are pressed 




Ect. 



B.U.' 



Fig. 356. — Stomach of a ruminant (sheep) : a?, oesophagus ; Ru, paunch ; 
ret, honey-comb ; Ps, manyplies ; a, true digestive stomach or rennet ; 
du } beginning of intestine. 



against the opposite and toothless gum of the upper. The 
stomach (Fig. 356), with few exceptions, is divided into 
four compartments : 1. The paunch, ru ; 2. The honey- 

* The grass, partly chewed and mixed with saliva, is swallowed, 
and passes into the oesophagus ; the latter is continued into a tube 
with a long slit on its under side, whose lips fit closely, and are 
water-tight. The tube thus formed leads naturally to the third stom- 
ach, and here we see a wonderful provision. The coarse food as it is 
swallowed at first, from its size presses open the slit, and drops into 
stomach No. 1, or paunch, where it is mixed with water. From here it 
goes into stomach No. 2, or the honeycomb, where the polygonal spaces 
may serve to fashion it into pellets or cuds. Now, by a simultaneous 
contraction of the diaphragm and abdominal muscles, a cud is forced 
against the cardiac aperture of the stomach into the oesophagus, and so 
into the mouth, where it is chewed by the molar teeth, and again swal- 
lowed at last ready for digestion. As it passes down for the second 
time, we would perhaps expect it to press open the slit and drop into 
the first stomach again ; the second chewing, however, has reduced it 
to a pulp, so that it is now not large enough, and it passes along the 
tube over the slit and into the third stomach or manyplies, where it 
is strained ; then passing into the true stomach, where it is mixed with 
the gastric juice and absorbed. 



MAMMALIA. 



333 



comb, ret (so called from the presence of polygonal 
spaces) ; 3, The manyplies, ps ; and, lastly, the stomach 
or rennet, a. 

The deer are characterized by solid, branching antlers 
or horns that are cast yearly.* They generally have sacks 
beneath the eye, that can be opened or shut at will, con- 
taining a waxy secretion, having a pungent odor, and are 
called "tear-pits." The females, with the exception of 
the reindeer, are hornless. The Virginia deer (Cariaais 
Virginianus) is a typical American species, and one of 
the most beautiful of the family. They attain a weight of 
two hundred and fifty pounds, and vary in color with the 
seasons ; being a light brown in summer and a reddish 
gray in winter, the under part of the throat and tail being 
a white at all times. The Wapiti (Fig. 357) is one of the 
noblest American deer, and is closely allied to the Eng- 
lish red deer or stag. They attain a length of nearly 
eight feet, and a height of five feet at the shoulders. The 
horns or antlers are shapely, with twelve points or more, 
and are six to seven feet long, weighing at times nearly 
eighty pounds. The tips or branches increase with years, 
and forty-five have been seen on the antlers of an Eng- 
lish stag. In the summer the wapiti are reddish brown, 
and in the winter gray. They range the northern coun- 
try east of the Missouri. The caribou is allied to the 
European reindeer ; two species range our Northern for- 

* Toward the end of spring there is an increased flow of blood to 
the head, the blood-vessels being temporarily enlarged. Budding horns 
now appear ; they are highly sensitive and delicate, covered with a 
downy skin, called and resembling velvet, and permeated with blood- 
vessels. They grow with marvelous rapidity, the antlers of a full-grown 
stag being completely formed in ten weeks. When full growth has 
been attained, a burr or ring forms at the base of each, that presses 
and cuts off the blood-vessels ; the velvet then shrivels and peels off, 
assisted by rubbing, the marks of the blood-vessels being now seen as 
grooves. In the Indian deer, and perhaps some other tropical spe- 
cies, the casting does not occur annually. 



334 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



ests. The antlers are thick and stubby, and vary greatly 
in individuals. 




Fig. 357. — Wapiti (Cervus Canadensis). 

The reindeer of Arctic Europe are about four feet 
long and three high, and the females also have horns. In 
the summer their fur is brown and in winter lighter — a 
protective measure. 

The moose {Alee Americanus) (Fig. 358) is the largest 
of the family, having immense broad antlers, that alone 
weigh nearly eighty pounds, and resemble in shape the pine- 
branches of the northern forests. Their muzzle is broad 
and long, the legs long, the shoulders and neck covered by 
a thick growth of coarse hair. Their color is a grayish 
brown. They are extremely fleet, and step so high in 
running that they pass over a five-foot wall or fence with- 



MAMMALIA. 



335 



out effort. They range from northern Maine to the Arctic 
regions. In the winter the herds of moose often form 
yards in the snow, trampling it down for several miles, 




Fig. 358. — Moose {Alee Americanus). 



banding together for protection against the wolves, to 
whom they often fall victims in the soft, deep snow. The 
great extinct Irish elk was an allied form, and their> re- 
mains are now' frequently found in the Irish bogs. Their 
horns often measured twelve feet from tip to tip, and were 
so broad that three or four men could rest on them. They 
were ten feet high, including the horns. The axis deer is 
an Indian species, and is spotted with white, similar to 
the fallow deer. In Java is found the Muntjac {Cervus 
vaginalis) ; its horns are on bony pedestals, and the male 
is remarkable for its long, protruding canine teeth in the 
upper jaw. The musk-deer of Asia has similar teeth. 

Value. — Fur, hides, horns, teeth, hoofs, sinews, musk, etc. 

Hollow - Horned Ruminants {Bovidce). General 
Characteristics. — This large family includes the buffaloes, 
oxen, sheep, goats, and antelopes, distinguished from the 
deer by the peculiar structure of the horns, that are hol- 
low, and, as a rule, not shed. Two processes of the fore- 



336 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 




Fig. 359. — Rocky Mountain sheep {Capra 
monta?ia). 



head (frontal) bone 
of the skull form the 
cores that are cov- 
ered by the horns, 
that are special de- 
velopments of the 
outer skin or epi- 
dermis. 

Goats and 
Sheep.— In the 
Rocky Mountain 
sheep, or big-horn 

( Fi g- 359), the horns 
are extremely pow- 
erful. In the fe- 
male, the horns are 

straight, and similar to those of a goat. Their height at 

the shoulder is about three feet, and their weight three 

hundred and fifty pounds. They are now confined to the 

country west of the Missouri, and are fast becoming extinct. 
&bout forty varieties of the domestic sheep are known. 

Its origin is obscure, 

but it is possibly a ~"~ - 

descendant of an 

Asiatic sheep (Om's 

argali). The Bar- 

bary sheep, or Mou- 

flon, has soft hair' 

of a reddish tinge. 

From it and the Si- 
berian Argali spring 

the merino sheep of 

the East ; their tails 

attain a weight of 

onehundred pounds, 

and have to be sup- 




Fig. 360. — Musk-sheep {Ovibos moschatus). 



MAMMALIA. 



337 



ported on racks harnessed to the animal. The musk- 
sheep (Ovibos) (Fig. 360), or ox, as it is incorrectly called, 
is confined to the Arctic region of North America. It is 
a comparatively small animal, about the size of a cow, but 
its long, brownish-black hair gives it a much larger appear- 
ance. The horns are broad at the base, and bent down 
upon the cheek, turning up again. They secrete a strong 
musk, the flesh even being impregnated with the odor. 




Fig. 361. — Chamois and ibex. 



They assemble in herds, and are becoming exceedingly 
rare. At the end of the glacial period an allied form 
roamed the Middle States. The Angora goat, Cashmere 
goat, and ibex (Copra ibex) (Fig. 361), are allies. 

Value. — Sheep's wool. One hundred thousand Persian lamb-skins 
are used annually by the trade ; six hundred thousand Astrakhan, and 
two million European. From the goats come mohairs, cashmeres, etc. 
Fifteen million pounds of Angora wool alone is used annually in the 
trade. The horns, hides, and hoofs are all valued. 

Antelopes. — The antelopes are remarkable for their 
speed and elegant forms. The goat-antelopes are repre- 
sented in America by the mountain goat (Aploceros mon- 
15 



338 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



tanus). Its horns are jet black, slender, and slightly- 
curved, resembling those of the Alpine chamois (Fig. 361). 
Its hair is long and white. 

The prong-horn is a characteristic American antelope, 
and remarkably fleet. They are larger than the domestic 
sheep, and covered with coarse, brush-like hair, that is yel- 
lowish brown above, the under portion and a square patch 
on the rump being pure white, while the horns, hoofs, and 
parts of the nose are black. The horns bend slightly, and 
midway to the tip is a small prong, from which they take 
their name. The horns, though hollow, and having a 
persistent core, as in the ox, are shed in the autumn. 

Among the 
gazelles, the Si- 
berian antelope, 
or Saiga (Fig. 
362), is the most 
striking. The 
muzzle is bent 
downward, and 
the horns beau- 
tifully shaped. 
They are found 
in Poland and 
Russia, and are 
the most north- 
ern of the fam- 
ily. 

Allied are 
the chamois of 
Europe (Fig. 




Fig. 362. — Siberian antelope, remarkable for its 
curved muzzle. 



oryx, 



eland of Af- 



361), the gnu. the pygmy antelope, 
rica, etc. 

Oxen (Bovina). — The domestic oxen do not present a 
genuine species, but represent many races that have de- 
scended from several extinct species. They are character- 



MAMMALIA. 



339 



ized by horns curving outward and downward, short tails, 
and broad hoofs. The American bison (Bison America- 
nits), or buffalo, formerly ranged from Virginia and Lake 




Champlain to Florida, but are now confined to the far 
West, and fast becoming extinct. They are of large size, 
the head powerful and carried low. The forehead is 



3 4 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

broad, the horns small, tapering, and set far apart. Be- 
tween the shoulders is a prominent hump which, with the 
neck, head, and chest, is covered by long, shaggy hair, the 
remainder of the fur being short and brownish in color. 
They herd in vast numbers. Allied to them are the Eu- 
ropean bison, or auroch* the Cape buffalo (B. caffer) of 
South Africa, the Indian buffalo (B. bubalus), the yak, or 
grunting ox — a native of Thibet — and the zebu of India. 
Value. — Every part of these animals has its value. 

Giraffes (CamelopardalidcB). — The giraffe is repre- 
sented by a single species inhabiting the plains of Central 
Africa. Its neck is of remarkable length, so that its head 
is often eighteen feet from the ground ; the number of 
vertebrae, however, is seven, as in other mammals, each 
bone being lengthened out. The back slopes rapidly to 
the tail, giving the impression that the fore-legs are the 
longest, but they are of equal length. They have no horns, 
but two long, solid appendages, attached partly to the 
frontal and partly to the parietal bones ; these are covered 
by the skin, and terminate in a tuft of bristles. In front 
of them is a prominence caused by a thickening of the 
bone that has been incorrectly described as a third horn. 
The tongue is nearly seventeen inches long, and in its use 
is not incomparable to the trunk of the elephant. 
Value. — Skins, and the bones are made into buttons. 

Camel {Camelidce)'.- — The camels have two incisor teeth 
in the upper jaw, and six incisors below, canine teeth 
in each jaw, and from eighteen to twenty molars. They 

* The extinct Bos primigenius lived in Germany and England 
during the time of Caesar, and is the m-tis of the Nibelungen song. 
They are the ancestors of the half-wild cattle in English parks, and 
the Holstein and Friesland breed. The European bison has only been 
saved from extinction by the Emperors of Russia, who have preserved 
eight hundred in the forests of Bialowicza, Lithuania, and have pre- 
vented the destruction of those running: wild in the Caucasus. 



MAMMALIA. 



341 



have either one or two humps upon the back, composed of 
fatty matter ; in the paunch are several cells (Fig. 364, a) 




Fig. 364. — a, Water-cells in the paunch of the camel ; b, foot, showing the 

pad. 

that contain a supply of water to last them in the dry coun- 
try in which they live. Their feet (Fig. 364, b) are equally 
adapted to the dry sand, the two toes uniting nearly to 




Fig. 365. — The true camel {Camelus dromedarius). 



342 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

the point, forming a callous, elastic cushion. The drome- 
dary, or single-humped camel* (Fig. 365), is found in 
Arabia, Syria, Persia, and Africa, and is remarkable for its 
speed, carrying a rider nearly one hundred miles a day. 
In the caravan they carry a load weighing from six hun- 
dred to one thousand pounds. The young are about three 
feet high when born, and do not attain their full growth 
for seventeen years. Their average age is fifty years. The 
Bactrian camel, or two-humped variety, is eight feet high 
between the humps, and about ten feet long. It came 
originally from Central Asia. Allied are the llama of Peru 
and Chili, the guanaco, and the alpaca. 

Value. — Hide and hair, and as beasts of burden. In the Falkland 
Islands, guanaco-bones are used as fire-wood. 

Order VIII. Flesh-eating Mammals (Camivora). 
General Characteristics. — This order includes the cats, 
bears, seals, etc. — animals that feed mainly upon flesh — to 
obtain which they have sharp claws (Fig. 373), fangs, and 
cutting teeth (Fig. 375). The head is generally massive 
and powerful, each jaw containing six incisors, behind 
which is placed a long, stout canine. The number of mo- 
lar teeth varies with the species, and they have trenchant 
edges for cutting. 

Sub-order I. Pinnipedia. Seals \ {P/wcidce). — The 
common seal (Callocephalus vitulinus) has no external ears ; 
the arms and legs are short, the latter being large and 
fan-shaped ; the inner and outer toes are large and long, 
the three middle ones shorter ; the palms and soles are 
hairy, and the claws distinct and sharp. They are ex- 
tremely intelligent, and susceptible of domestication. The 

* These animals have been introduced into the deserts of Nevada, 
and are rapidly increasing in numbers. 

\ Members of this family have been seen in the Caspian Sea, 
in Lake Baikal, and lately the harbor seal has been observed in Lake 
Champlain, and other streams in central New York. The common 
seal has been caught in Chesapeake Bay. 



MAMMALIA. 



343 



general color is a dark, slaty gray, and their maximum 
length about five feet. The young, generally two at a 
birth, are white or a light yellow, a provision that renders 
them inconspicuous on the ice. 





Fig. 366. — Harp seal. 

The harp seal (Pagophilus) (Fig. 366), the ringed seal, 
the hooded seal (Cystophora) of Greenland and northern 







Fig. 367.— Skeleton of a sea-lion, showing how the whole foot rests on the 
ground, as in the bear family : th, thigh ; /, leg ; h, heel ; /, foot ; a, 
upper arm ; fa, fore-arm ; ha, hand. 



344 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



Europe, and the sea-elephant (Morunga), of Antarctic 
waters, are others of the family. Then follows the walrus 
(Trichechidd) (Fig. 368). 

Eared Seals (Otariidd). — The sea-lion {Otaria) (Fig. 
367) is a familiar example. The sea-bear (Callorhinus), 
common in Behring Strait and Kamchatka, is one of the 
famous fur-seals of commerce. 

Value. — Hides, ivory, viscera, etc. One million Atlantic hair-seals 
are killed annually, and two hundred thousand Pacific fur-seals, and 
many more from the South Atlantic. 

Sub-order II. The True Carnivora {Fissipedia).— 
The Raccoons (Procyonidd) are bear-like animals with 
sharp, pointed muzzles, ranging from Canada to Paraguay. 
The common raccoon {Procyon) is found • throughout 
the United States. They are nocturnal, vegetable or flesh- 
eating animals, about a foot long, exclusive of the tail, 
which is nearly ten inches in length. Their color is a 
rusty gray with many black-tipped hairs, the tail barred 
with five black rings. They bear from five to six young 
in May, the nest generally being in a hollow tree. The 
black-footed, crab-eating, and Californian raccoons are 
different species ; similar in their habits. The coatimundi 
(Nasua) is found from Mexico to Paraguay. The kinka- 
jou and B assarts are allies. 

Value. — Five hundred thousand coon-skins are annually used 
as fur. 

Bears (Ursidd). — This family has a wide geographical 
range, being represented in all countries except Australia. 
The white or polar bear (Fig. 368) ( Ursus maritimus) is 
found in the Arctic regions. The body is large, and cov- 
ered with white hair, the tail rudimentary, the foot enor- 
mous, measuring one sixth of the length of the entire body, 
and armed with powerful claws. They are particularly dis- 
tinguished from other bears by having the soles of the feet 
covered with close-set hairs — a provision that prevents 



MAMMALIA. 345 

their slipping on the ice, while their white fur renders them 
invisible at any great distance. 




Fig. 368.— Polar bear and walrus, showing: how the bear walks with the heel 
flat on the ground, and the walrus also. 

Note.— Many animals that can not migrate and are deprived of 
food by cold weather are enabled to enter into a state of torpor called 
winter sleep or hibernation, and thus bridge over the foodless season. 
In the extreme south certain animals during the dry period enter into 
a summer sleep called estivation. In complete hibernation all the 
functions of life are almost at a stand still ; the respiration is reduced 
and irritability of muscular fibre increased. Hibernation is favored by 
cold but not produced directly by it, and the hibernator is not insen- 
sible to extremes. In entering the sleep the temperature of the body 
sinks to nearly that of the surrounding atmosphere. If, now, the cold 
is intense, they are awakened and then are frozen. According to Sem- 
per, the zizel, or Sfermophihis, attains the lowest temperature in this 
condition of any known animal, namely, 2" (centigrade), the exact tem- 
perature of the outside air in one experiment, so that the animal maybe 



346 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

said to have become cold-blooded. The normal temperature of the zizel 
is 32 (centigrade). As the cause of the sleep is not directly the result 
of cold, neither is the awakening caused by a rise in temperature. In 
experiments with the same-mentioned animal it awoke without any 
change in the outside temperature, being two hours and forty-five 
minutes in awakening. In the first hour and forty-five minutes the 
body temperature rose 6.6° (centigrade), and in the following fifty 
minutes 17 . It was accompanied by no vigorous movements or 
quicker respiration. During hibernation animals can be placed under 
water without ill effect, though it would be fatal in a few moments if 
awake. According to Kirby, joint author of " Introduction to Ento- 
mology," an authentic case is recorded of an instance of human hiber- 
nation in India. The man was buried alive in the presence of Sir 
Claude Wade, the grave guarded and watched for several months, and 
the hibernator finally taken out, gradually awakening. 

The black bear ( Ursits Americanus) is quite common in 
northern New York. They attain a weight of four hundred 
and fifty pounds and a length of eight feet, and are of a 
dark-brown or black color. In extreme weather the fe- 
males prepare a den, and as a rule pass into a state of 
hibernation, during which the intestines are clogged with 
vegetable substance, generally taken from the pine. In 
January or February, generally every third year, the young 
(three or four) are born, remaining under the mother's 
protection for five or six months. They prey upon sheep, 
calves, etc., and also eat berries, honey, ants, etc. The 
grizzly bear ( Ursus ferox) of the western slopes of the 
Rocky Mountains, the Syrian bear of Mount Lebanon, the 
Malayan bear, and the sloth or honey bear {Melursus) of 
India, are others of the family. 

Value. — Oil, fat, skin, teeth, hair, and viscera. 

Badgers, Otters, etc. (Mustelidci). — The true badg- 
ers (Taxidea) are found in central and western North and 
South America, and are thick-set animals about two feet 
long, not including the tail, which attains a length of six 
inches. The skunk {Mephitis), twelve different species, 
ranges from Canada to the Straits of Magellan. The com- 



MAMMALIA. 34; 

mon skunk is almost entirely nocturnal, feeding upon mice, 
insects, and various kinds of food. They hibernate in 
midwinter. 

Otters. — The otter (Lutra) (Fig. 371) has representa- 
tives in nearly every part of the globe. The North Amer- 
ican species is generally found upon the banks of streams, 
in which its burrow or nest is built. The sea-otter (Enhy- 
dra) (Fig. 369) is twice as large as the above, attaining a 




;.- «-^m . 



Fig. 369. — Sea-otter (Enhydra marina), showing the front paws and the 
hind webbed feet. 

weight of eighty pounds, and is found on the Pacific coast 
of America and Asia. Its habits are almost identical with 
those of the seal. In warm weather they proceed up the 
rivers, returning to the sea in winter, passing nearly their 
entire time in the water, eating and even rearing and 
nursing their young in the kelp-beds. The front feet are 
short with small claws, the hind ones being perfect swim- 
ming-flippers with long toes and stout claws. Their teeth 
are rounded and adapted for crushing crustaceans, mol- 
lusks, or fish.* Their fur is an extremely rich brown. 

* The sea-otters are remarkable for their playfulness. When ap- 
proached, they place one paw over the eyes, as if shielding them from 



348 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

Note. — The adaptation of the limbs in the sea-otter is extremely 
interesting and worthy of special attention, and an advantageous study 
would be a comparison of the limbs (Fig. 370) of different animals. 




Fig. 370.— Feet of various animals compared. A, deer ; B, ornithorhynchus ; 
C, otter ; D, frog ; £, seal. 

The common mink of this country (Fig. 371) attains a 
length of seventeen inches to the tail, which is eight inches 
longer. The body-color is a dark chestnut-brown, the 
tail black, and tip of the chin white. The marten or 
American sable (Mustela) ranges from northern New 
York northward, and is much valued. It attains the 
same length as the common mink, the tail being about 
two inches longer. Its color is a rich, glistening, golden 
red, clouded with black ; the legs and tail are dark, a light 
patch appearing upon the throat ; the feet are thickly 
furred. They burrow, and nest in old trees, and bring 
out a litter of from two to seven young in April. The 
fisher, or pekan, weasels, etc., are allies. The most fero- 
cious of the group is the glutton, or wolverine (Gulo). It 
is confined to the cold regions of Europe, Asia, and North 
America, coming as far south as the Great Lakes. In the 
latter country it attains a length of three feet and a half 
to the tail, which is about one foot in length and extremely 

the sun, then scratch themselves on the limbs, twisting about in vari- 
ous ways, and when just out of the water they are so absorbed in their 
toilet that they can frequently be taken. The males and females show 
the greatest devotion, kissing and patting each other like human beings. 
The mother's antics with the young are equally amusing ; she tosses it 
in the air, fondles it in her arms, catches it with her fore-feet like a ball, 
and swims about with it clasped to her breast. The Chinese train the 
sea-otter to fish, and many are used for the purpose. 



MAMMALIA. 



349 



bushy. The paws are large and heavy, the soles densely 
haired, and furnished with six small, naked pads. They 
feed upon small animals, and the young, generally from 
two to four, appear in May. They are to some extent ar- 
boreal in their habits. The grison (Ga/ictis) of northern 
and central South America is a fierce member of the group. 

Value. — Fur and hide of all are valuable. 




Fig. 371. — A group of valuable fur-bearers. 1, Arctic fox ; 2, silver fox ; 3, 
sable ; 4, otter ; 5, mink ; 6, ermine. 



Dog (Canidce). — This family comprises the dogs, 
wolves, and foxes, and has a wide geographical range. 
Nearly all possess the mechanism for retraction of the 
claws, but the action is not sufficient to protect them from 
wear; thus they are modified for purposes of digging. The 
American red fox ( Vulpes) has a slender, pointed muzzle, 
and is of a reddish-yellow hue. It preys upon domestic 
fowls and small game of all kinds. The young are reared 
in burrows in the ground. The Arctic fox (Fig. 371) is 
white in the winter and brown in summer. They live in 



35o 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



burrows in communities of twenty or thirty.* The holes 
are connected underground and generally found stored 
with sea-birds. The prairie, swift, gray, coast, silver, and 
cross foxes are familiar American members of the family. 
The wolf (Fig. 372) (Cam's) somewhat resembles the fox, 
but is larger and much more powerful. The coyote, or 
prairie-wolf, is a typical American species. They attain a 
length of thirty-eight inches to the base of the tail, which 
is fifteen inches longer. They live more or less in com- 
munities, and the young, often ten, are reared in burrows, 
appearing in April. The gray, black, dusky, red, and 
Mexican wolves are other species. The Asiatic wolves 
are noted for their ferocity. The jackal is a wolf-like 
creature of Asia and Africa. . The dog (Canis familiaris) 
is probably a descendant of the wolf. 

Value. — Skin, hide, oil, bones, teeth, and for domestic use. 




Fig. 372.— The wolf {Cams lupus), showing the dcg-like form. 

* These animals formerly existed in incredible numbers on Behr- 
ing Island, and were so tame that they overran the camps, carrying 
off hats, mittens, and clothing, nosing the sleepers in the night, and 
having actually to be driven away with clubs. 



MAMMALIA. 35 1 

Civets ( Viverridce). — This large family has no repre- 
sentatives in America — the civets, genets, and ichneumons 
being characteristic of Africa and the Oriental region. 
Allied are the hyenas (Hyanidd), found in India and Asia 
Minor and Africa. 

Cat (Felidce). — The cats, of all the Carnivora } are the 
most beautiful and active. Their bodies are shapely, 
many presenting a noble appearance, the type of grace and 
power. The head is short and broad, the feet armed with 
powerful, retractile, sheathed claws (Fig. 373), five on the 





FxG. 373. — Claws of the cat or tiger : A, claw held back by the strong liga- 
ment /; B, claw pulled forward by the tendon t being drawn back, so 
that / is stretched out. 

fore-feet and four behind, the soles hairy, and provided with 
soft, elastic pads that aid in their stealthy approach upon 
prey. The tongue is provided wuth a rasping surface, 
composed of sharp recurved prickles ; the limbs are power- 
ful and adapted for prodigious leaps, for which nearly all 
the family are noted. The hunting leopard (Felis jubata), 
of southern India and Africa, is an interesting form, 
and a rapid runner, being employed in hunting by the 
natives. The claws are retractile,* but in their action more 
like those of the dog. 

The lynxes (Lynx), of which four species are known 
in North America, are characterized by thick-set bodies, 
the tail short and truncated, and ears ornamented with 
tips. The American wild cat attains a length of about 
twenty-eight and three quarter inches, the tail seven inches, 

* Claws are retractile when they are held back naturally by the 
muscles, and thus prevented from wearing away, only being extended 
when wanted to secure prey or assist in climbing. 



352 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



height at shoulder fifteen and a half inches. The fur is 
soft and thick, the color upon the sides a light red, over- 
cast with grizzly gray ; below they are white and spotted, 
the inner surface of the ear and the tip of the tail black. 
They are powerful animals, and prey upon small game of 
various kinds. They nest in hollow trees and logs. 

The Canada lynxes (Fig. 374) are the largest, attaining a 
length of three and a half feet. They are extremely pow- 
erful, attack- 
ing large ani- 
mals, sheep, 
etc. ; are good 
swimmers, and 
easily recog- 
nized by their 
gallop. They 
produce their 
young, general- 
ly two, in dens 
or hollow trees. 
The red cat 
and Texas wild 
cat are other 

Fig. 374. — Canada lynx (Lynx Canadensis). Species. 

The domes- 
tic cat (Fclis) has been domesticated for over a thousand 
years, and was probably first used in Egypt. The ya- 
guarundi ranges from southern Texas to central South 
America. The tail is nearly as long as the body, the pre- 
vailing color a grayish brown. The ocelot and tiger-cats 
range from Texas southward. 

The puma or panther is the largest and most powerful 
true North American cat, equaling in size a large hound, 
weighing one hundred and seventy-five pounds, and com- 
mon throughout the less frequented parts of the country. 
They are extremely powerful, leaping forty or fifty feet 




MAMMALIA. 



353 



or more from an elevation, and taking to trees and climb- 
ing generally only when pressed. They prey upon various 
animals, and have been known, though rarely, to attack 
man. In southern Florida they swim from key to key 
with perfect ease. The general color of the puma in best 
condition is a rich mouse-gray with light beneath. The 
jaguar is the American tiger, and differs from the puma 
in being essentially arboreal. It ranges from Texas to 
southern South America, and is the largest and hand- 
somest cat in the Western Continent, attaining a total 
length of over five feet, and is so powerful that it has 
been known to kill a mustang, swim with it across a river, 
dragging it into the bush beyond. The general color is 
brownish yellow above, white beneath, with numerous dark- 
er spots. The sides of the body are marked with a series 
of irregular figures. They are accredited with wonderful 
powers by Humboldt and other writers, in opening turtles 
and catching fish with their powerful claws. The leopard 
is perhaps the most beautifully marked of the family, and 
ranges the jungles of Asia, Africa, and the Indian Archi- 
pelago. The skin is richly marked with oval spots. The 
black leopard * is singularly treacherous and utterly un- 
tamable. The tiger f of India (Fig. 375), next to the lion, 
is the most powerful of the cat tribe, majestic in appear- 
ance, the type of agility, cunning, and ferocity. They are 
as large as the lion, with a longer body and rounder head. 
The color of the fur is a rich fawn above, striped and 
barred irregularly with black, the under portion being 

* Albinos are found among all animals, a condition generally the 
result 01" a lack of pigment. Its absence in the eye produces the so- 
called "pink" eyes. Albinism, then, is not properly a disease, and in 
no wise affects physical or mental vigor. The black leopard is a sub- 
ject of melanism, owing to an over-supply of coloring-matter in the 
cells. 

f The marks of the tiger, leopard, ocelot, and the color of the puma, 
are all protective, and when crouching upon a limb or on the ground 
help to render them inconspicuous. 



354 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



pure white. They are extremely ferocious, attacking the 
largest animals. In 1881 eight hundred and eighty-nine 
persons were killed by them alone in southern India, while 
the leopards killed two hundred and thirty-nine. Wallace 
records that, in one of the localities he was in (Singapore), 
the tigers, on an average, killed one native a day through- 
out the year. The young, generally two at a birth, are 




Fig. 375. — The tiger, showing slim body, muscular thighs, strong front-legs 
and paws, and short face with large teeth, all with sharp edges, especially- 
one (the carnassiat) near the back in both jaws. 



carried about in the mouth, after the manner of the do- 
mestic cat. The ounce is an allied cat. The lion (Fells 
leo) is the royal member of the cat family, and justly so 
from its magnificent bearing. It is found in Africa and 
Asia, the two probably being merely varieties. The Afri- 
can lion is much more dreaded and displays greater 
cunning than its ally. The largest of these attain a 
length of nine feet, exclusive of the tail. The neck of 
the male is protected by a thick mane, giving them a 



MAMMALL 



355 



ferocious appearance. The general color of the hide is 
tawny ; the feet and paws are immense, the animal being 
adapted for leaping and overpowering the largest game. 
The females are somewhat smaller than the males, and 
have no manes. About twenty extinct species of this 
family have been found, resembling lions, tigers, etc. 
The remains of a ferocious tiger (Machcerodus) have 
been discovered in England and other countries. It 
lived contemporaneously with man, and had serrated 
teeth, and fangs eight inches long, more like sabers than 
teeth. 

Value. — Five hundred lion-skins are used annually by the trade ; 
one hundred thousand wild-cat, and over one million skins of the com- 
mon cat are made into cheap furs. 

Order X. Primates. General Characteristics. — We 
now come to the last and highest order of mammals, 
represented by the lemurs, monkeys, and man. In the 
higher forms of apes and monkeys a vast improvement 
or advance is noticed. The body is now carried more 
erect, claws are replaced by finger-nails, the fingers are 
long and more perfectly adapted to a greater number of 
uses than in the preceding forms, and the great toe of 
the hind-feet is much enlarged and opposable to the oth- 
ers ; the legs are exserted quite free from the trunk, the 
brain is large, the ears rounded, having a distinct lobe ; 
the body is hairy, the tail long or short, and the face in 
many extremely human in its detail. The primates are 
divided into two sub-orders : i. Prosimics, comprising the 
lemurs ; and 2. Anthropoidea, including all the rest that are 
divided provisionally into five divisions or families as fol- 
lows : 1. The marmosets {Hapalidd). 2. The American 
monkeys, having three true molar teeth on each side of 
each jaw {Cebidce). 3. The Old World monkeys, except 
the man-like apes {Cercopithecidce). 4. The man-like apes 
(Simiidce) ; and, 5. Man (Homim'dc?). 



356 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



Sub-order I. Prosimiae. Lemurs (Lemuroidea). — 
The lemurs are the lowest of the primates, a group of beau- 
tiful animals ranging in size from a cat to a good-sized 
monkey (Fig. 376). The entire body is covered with hair, 
and even the face in some. The head is small and fox- 
like, the skull small, narrow in front, and flattened ; the 
ears are conspicuous and often tufted. They are gregari- 
ous, and diurnal in their habits, rarely leaving the tree- 
tops, among which they leap with the greatest agility. 
They are found in Madagascar, southern and eastern Asia 
and Africa. Fossil remains of lemurs have been found in 
North America. 







Fig. 376. — 1, the aye-aye ; 2, lemur in the forests of Madagascar. 



Aye-aye (Chiromyidci). — These interesting animals 
(Fig. 376) are found in Madagascar, and are remarkable for 
their enormous compressed, curved, incisor teeth, that have 



MAMMALIA. 



357 



persistent pulps and enamel in front only, as we have seen 
in the rodents. The toes have claws, except the great ones, 
which have a flat nail ; the digits are remarkably long and 
slender, especially the middle and third of the fore-arms= 
They are about the size of a cat. The general color is dark 
brown, the long, loose, outer fur having a woolly under- 
coat. They feed upon the succulent juices of sugar-cane, 
also insects and grubs obtained from trees with their pow- 
erful teeth. They are truly nocturnal. Their nests are 
formed of balls of leaves lodged in the forks of large trees. 
Lemur (Lemuridce). — The ring-tailed lemur {Lemur 
cattd) is one of the most striking of the family, and is of 
a beautiful gray color, its tail marked with alternate rings 
of black and white, the face and inner surface of the 
ears white, and the top of the head dark. It is the only 
ground member of 
the family, living 
among the rocks 
and bushes, walk- 
ing on all-fours. 
The upper canine 
teeth are extreme- 
ly large, the low- 
er canine extend- 
ing out horizon- 
tally from the jaw. 
The young, gen- 
erally two, are at 
first nearly naked, 
and are carried 
about in the arms 

of the mother, later clinging to her long hair. They utter 
loud cries, and feed upon eggs, young birds, insects, fruits, 
buds, or flowers (Fig. 376). The Propithecus is a com- 
mon form in Madagascar ; the Indris is the largest of the 
group. Allied is the lori (Fig. 377). 




Fig. 377. — Loris, showing (1) skull and (2) op- 
posable thumb. 



358 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



Sub-order II. Man-shaped Animals {A?itkrot>oidea) . 
Marmosets (Hapalidce). — The marmosets are confined 
exclusively to South America, and are rarely larger than 
large squirrels. They have long, non-prehensile tails, and 
walk upon all-fours, the feet and hands being similar, and 
the digits armed, with the exception of the great toes, with 
nail-like claws. As the thumbs are not opposable, they 
can not grasp with the facility of other monkeys. 




Fig. 378. — A woolly monkey and young (Lagothryx Humboldtii), showing 
grasping tail. 



Weepers {Cebidce). — In this large family we first meet 
the true monkeys, the family embracing all the South 
American forms. They are distinguished by the posses- 
sion of more molar teeth than those that follow, having in 
all thirty-six teeth, while the rest have only thirty-two. 
Many also possess a long, prehensile tail of so much use 



MAMMALIA. 



359 



in clinging that it serves the purpose of a fifth hand (Fig. 
378). The red-faced spider-monkey (Ateles) is one of the 
most remarkable for the attenuation of its form. The tail 
is extremely long and bare upon its under surface, and 
with it they swing from limb to limb with the greatest ease. 
In walking upright, the arms are often held high in air, 
and the long tail curled over the head. The horned 
monkeys (Cebus), the bearded saki (Pithecia), and the 
howling monkeys (Mycetes), are familiar forms. The voice 
of the latter is so powerful that it can be heard a mile, the 
hyoid apparatus and windpipe (larynx) being wonderfully 
modified into a sound-producer, the body of the former 
assuming the functions of a large bony drum or air-sac 
connecting with the larynx. In the male these curious 
vocal organs are one third larger than in the female. Fol- 
lowing are the Cercopithecidce, a group of monkeys peculiar 
to the Old World. The face of the dog-faced apes is pro- 
duced into a dog-like snout, more or less blunt or truncat- 
ed ; the eyes are small, deeply set, and placed close to- 
gether. The wanderoo (Macacus), the Gibraltar monkey 
{Macacus inuns), the mandrill and chacma, and the bab- 
boon (Cynocefthalus), are familiar forms. Allied are the 
Sleepers (Sernnoftithecidce), of Africa and Asia. 

Apes {Simiidce). — The animals of this family in their 
physical development show a near approach to the human 
type. Their position is nearly erect, the tail absent, and 
the arms are much longer than the legs. The gibbons 
(Fig. 379) {Hylobates) attain a length of three feet. In the 
siamang, when standing erect, the fingers drag upon the 
ground, the limbs being used to swing them through the 
trees ; the thumbs and great toes only have nails. In color 
they are black, the hair being long, coarse, and glossy. 
They live in troops in the forests of Java, Borneo, etc., 
and are generally led by a chief, who gives warning at the 
approach of danger. The females show great solicitude 
for their young, and when in danger give vent to loud cries 



360 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



that, in this genus, are augmented by a large sac in the 
throat that communicates with the larynx, which when 




o « 



filled with air is distended like a huge goitre in the neck. 
The Hylobates agilis is remarkable for its leaps, clearing 



MAMMALIA. 361 

spaces of forty or fifty feet, and, according to Darwin, they 
are the must musical mammals next to man, " singing a 
complete and correct octave of musical notes." The orang- 
outang (Simid) (Fig. 379) is found in the islands of Bor- 
neo and Sumatra. They attain a length of a little over 
four feet, and a weight of one hundred and fifty pounds. 
The number of ribs is the same as in man, and there is 
some resemblance in the form of the brain, yet the capacity 
of the brain of the orang is only twenty-five cubic inches, 
while in man it is from seventy-five to ninety-two cubic 
inches. The arms are extremely long, the knuckles 
touching the ground in walking. The face is bare, the 
skin shiny black, and under the throat hangs in loose, 
flabby folds. The body is covered with reddish hair, 
twelve or fourteen inches lcng. In the male Simia Wurmbii 
the face is widened to an extraordinary extent by a hard, 
gristly expansion of the cheeks, measuring across the face 
thirteen inches. The female is smaller, the hair a lighter 
brown. They are entirely arboreal, living always in the 
tree-tops, never jumping, but swinging their heavy bodies 
five or six feet at a time by collecting the branches. When 
at rest or wounded, they break off branches and twigs and 
form platforms or nests in the tree-tops. Their favorite 
food is the fruit of the durian-tree. The voice is loud 
and resonant, and can be heard for a long distance. 

The chimpanzee (Mimetes) (Fig. 379) is found upon 
the west coast of Africa, from the Gambia to the Benguela, 
and inland to 2 8° east longitude. They attain a height 
of nearly five feet, can stand or walk erect, but prefer to 
bend forward upon the knuckles (Fig. 380). The face is 
black and exceedingly human in its outline ; they approach 
man, however, most closely in the character of the skull, 
their dentition, and the proportionate size of the arms; the 
brain capacity, however, is only twenty-six cubic inches. 
The canine teeth are powerful, though their food is en- 
tirely vegetable. They are arboreal, living in the trees, 
16 



36: 



BACKBONED ANIMALS. 



and forming nests of branches in the crotches near the 
ground. They are very intelligent, easily domesticated, 
and often brought to this country and Europe. 




Fig. 380 




*, hand, 5, foot of chimpanzee. (After Vogt.) c, hand, d, foot 
of man. 



The gorilla {Troglodytes) (Fig. 379) is the largest and 
most powerful of the order, though perhaps ranking with 
the chimpanzee as regards its position in the scale of life. 
They are also found in western Africa, and have a less ex- 
tended range, being found only between the rivers Came- 
roons and Congo, in the mountains of Guinea. Their hab- 
its are similar to those of the chimpanzee, though living in 
small communities, generally led by a single male. They 
erect uncovered platforms in the trees upon which to rest, 
deserting them during the day, and forming others at night. 
They attain a height of five feet six inches, and a weight 
of two hundred pounds. The color of the fur is a black- 
ish dun, turning gray with age. The skin is black, the 
ridges of the forehead (Fig. 381) prominent, the nose flat, 
lips and chin protruding, and the expression of the face 
demoniacal. The limbs are enormously powerful, and the 
first joints of all the fingers and three of the toes are con- 
nected by a strong web. While the chimpanzee resembles 
man in the characteristics given, the gorilla is more human 
in the proportions of the leg to the body and of the foot 



MAMMALIA. 



363 



to the hand, in the size of the heel, curvature of the spine, 
the form of the pelvis, and the capacity of the brain, which 
is from twenty-nine to thirty-five cubic inches. 




Fig. 381. — The gorilla {Troglodytes gorilla). 

Fossil monkeys have been found in the Selwalik hills 
of India, in France, Greece, Italy, Germany, and North 
and South America, none dating earlier than the Miocene 
time of geology. 

Value. — Skins, concretions, and as domestic animals. 



Works on Mammals for further reference. 

" Manual of Vertebrates," Huxley ; " Anatomy of Vertebrates," 
Owen ; "Marine Mammalia," Captain C. M. Scammon ; " Osteology 
of Mammalia," Flower ; " Antelopes and Deer of North America," J. 
D. Caton ; " North American Beaver," Morgan ; " Fur-bearing Ani- 
mals of North America," Elliott Coues ; " Standard Natural History," 



364 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

edited by Elliott Coues, M. D. ; " Mammals of the Adirondacks," C. 
Hart Merriam, M. D. ; "A Naturalist's Rambles about Home," Dr. 
C. C. Abbott. 

Man (Hominidce). General Characteristics. — Man {Homo 
sapiens) stands as the exponent of the highest perfection of 
animal life, unique and distinct from all preceding forms 
as regards his mental organization. In structure (Fig. 
379) he differs but little from other primates. The gen- 
eral physical differences are his erect position, the span of 
the arms equaling the height. The forehead or cranial 
box in man overhangs the orbits ; in the gorilla (Fig. 
381) the forehead is hollowed out. The brain in man 
is nearly twice the size of that of the gorilla, its capacity 
being from seventy-five to ninety-two cubic inches, while 
in the latter it is only thirty-five cubic inches. The brain 
of the former shows a greater number of convolutions ; 
and, finally, man alone possesses a perfect vocal commu- 
nication, known as language. 

The present human population of the globe is 1,433,- 
887,500. Man represents but a single genus and spe- 
cies. The different races are divided in accordance with 
certain external peculiarities ; thus, according to Huxley, 
two primary divisions are noticed : 1. The races with 
crisp or woolly hair, Ulotrichi, represented by the Afri- 
can negro (Fig. 382, 1, 2, 3), the Bushmen of ultra-Saharal 
Africa, the Negritos of the Malay Peninsula and Archi- 
pelago, and those of the Papuan Islands. They are char- 
acterized by yellow, brown, or black skins ; the lower 
part of the face protrudes, the waist is broader than in 
the white race, and the fore-arm, hand, foot, and leg are 
sometimes longer in proportion than Europeans. This 
is also true of the Australians, The legs are a little less 
than half the height, and the thigh-bone is flattened from 
side to side as in the gorilla. The heel of the negro, 
contrary to general opinion, is not longer in proportion 
to the foot than in white races, the projections seen being 



MAMMALIA 




Fig. 382.— Comparison of different races : 1, negro, West Africa ; 2, Ban> 
long, South Africa; 3, Hottentot; 4, Gilyak, Northern Asia ; 5, Japa- 
nese ; 6, Colorado Indian, North America ; 7. Eurooean 



366 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

fleshy, and an expansion cf soft parts due to not wearing 
shoes. 

2. Those with smooth hair, Leiotrichi, are divided into 
four groups upon a similar plan : i. The Australoid group, 
comprising the low Bushmen, in which the height averages 
four feet seven inches, and the legs less than half the height 
of the body. The hair, eyes, and skin are dark, the hair 
wavy. The skull is long, and the brow-ridges extremely 
prominent. The inhabitants of the Deccan belong here, 
and from them have sprung, in the estimation of Pro- 
fessor Huxley, the ancient Egyptians. The habits of the 
Bushmen are more like those of the lower primates than 
men. 2. The Mongoloid group. Herein are included the 
Chinese and Japanese (Fig. 382, 5), Mongols, people of 
Thibet, the Polynesians (Fig. 383), Esquimaux, and the 
American tribes (Fig. 382, 6). The Patagonians are the 
tallest people known, averaging six feet, the women, five 
feet ten inches, while the Esquimaux and the Bushmen are 
the smallest, averaging four feet seven inches. Three 
hundred and ninety-one years ago nearly the entire conti- 
nent of America was peopled with powerful native Indian 
tribes, that have been gradually driven to the West, 944 
individuals only being found now in the New England 
States, 303,217* in the United States, and 103,969 in 
the British possessions, 407,217 in all, in North America, 
speaking about four hundred and thirty distinct lan- 
guages. Their ultimate extinction or loss of individual- 
ity is merely a matter of time. Among the typical tribes 
the Pueblos of the Southwest, the Thlinkeets f of the 
Northwest, the Utes, or Colorado Indians (Fig. sS^), are 
prominent. All of this group have straight hair. The 
North American Indians have a reddish skin, the Chinese 
yellow, while the Polynesians are dark brown. 

* Report of 1880. 

f In early days the process of flattening the head was common 
throughout North and South America. 



MAMMALIA. 



367 



3. The Xanthochroic group (Fig. 382, 7), comprising the 
Slavonians, Germans, Norwegians, Swedes, Anglo-Ameri- 
cans, English, French, Italians, etc. These are the most 
intelligent and advanced, and form the great and powerful 
nations of the earth. 




Fig. 383. — Colorado Indian. 



4. The Melanochroi, or dark whites, including those 
with dark hair and eyes, and generally long skulls ; such are 
the Iberians, and the dark-complexioned though white 
people of western Asia, Persia, etc. Besides these differ- 
ences, that form the characteristics of races, there are oth- 



368 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 

ers. Thus, the form of the skull differs greatly, even 
among individuals. The Australians and Africans are 
prognathous , or forward-jawed, while the Europeans are 
orthognathous, or upright-jawed. When the skull is high 
and narrow, they are said to be dolichocephalic, or " long- 
headed." Others are termed br achy cephalic, or " short - 
headed," while a medium is called mesocephalic x or middle- 
headed. 

Early Man. — Man was contemporaneous with the 
cave-bear, the mammoth, and other huge animals that 
lived during the Post-tertiary period. Fossil remains and 
implements have been found in Quaternary deposits. The 
oldest remains found in America, on the authority of Pro- 
fessor Whitney, is a human cranium taken from a shaft 
one hundred and fifty feet deep in Calaveras County, Cali- 
fornia. It was imbedded in the gold-drift, and covered 
with five successive overflows of lava. Another fragment 
of a human skull was found imbedded one hundred and 
eighty feet below Table Mountain, associated with bones 
of the mastodon. According to Professor Whitney, these 
finds date to the Pliocene time of geology, a time prior to 
the volcanic eruptions that spread their lava over a large 
portion of the State. 

Specimens for Study. — The suggestions for the prepara- 
tion of skeletons, on page 291, may be applied to mam= 
mals also. 

Works on Man for further reference. 

" Hand-Book of Human and Comparative Histology," S. Strieker ; 
" Human Physiology," J. C. Dalton ; " Elementary Lessons in Physi- 
ology," Huxley ; " Natural History of Man," Von J. F. Blumenbach ; 
Lyell's " Antiquity of Man " ; F. Cushing, " My Adventures in Zufii/' 
in the "Century," February, 1883; "The Human Body," Martin ; 
il Anthropology," Tylor ; " The Essentials of Anatomy, Physiology, 
and Hygiene," R. S. Tracy. 



QUESTIONS. 



Branch I. — I. What is a cell? 2. Mention some differences be- 
tween animals and plants. 3. What are the characteristics of the sim- 
plest animals? 4. Describe a moner ; its method of eating. 5. What 
is a nucleus ? 6. Define a contracting vesicle. 7. Define an amoeba. 
8. Describe a shelled amoeba. 9. What is a radiolarian ? 10. What 
great work do these forms accomplish ? 11. Define a gregarine. 12. 
In what are they remarkable ? 13. Define the infusorians. 14. How 
do they differ from the preceding forms? 15. W T hat is a cilium ? 16. 
Define a monad. 17. What is a compound monad ? 18. How does 
the acienta differ from the monad ? 19. What are the characteristics 
of the suctorians? 20. Describe the bell animalcules. 21. What is 
meant by budding ? 

Branch II. — 1. Describe the structure of a sponge. 2. What are 
spicules ? 3. How does a sponge eat ? 4. Describe the different uses 
of the large and small pores. 5. Explain the development of the 
sponge. 6. Define a lime-sponge. 7. Give examples of other kinds. 
8. How do they benefit man ? 

Branch III. — 1. What are the genera 1 characteristics of coelente- 
rates? 2. Define a hydra; show the use of its arms. 3. What is a 
lasso-cell? 4. Describe a lime-secreting hydroid. 5. What is meant 
by alternate generations ? 6. Give an example. 7. How do the dis- 
cophores differ from hydroid medusae ? 8. Where are the eyes in a jelly- 
fish ? 9. Describe the development of an aurelia. 10. Explain the use 
of the water vascular system, n. Describe the physalia. 12. How does 
it secure prey? 13. Define a sea-anemone. 14. What is a septa? 15. 
Describe the development of sea-anemones. 16. How do corals differ 
from anemones ? 17. About how fast does coral grow ? 18. Are corals 
found out of the tropics ? Give example. 19. What is a coral reef, and 
how formed? 20. What is an atoll? 21. Of what value is coral to 
man ? Anemones ? 22. What is a gorgonia ? 23. Describe a sea-fan, 
24. What are the general characteristics of the comb-bearers? 



3;o QUESTIONS. 

Branch IV. — i. What are the general characteristics of echino- 
derms ? 2. What is a pedicellaria ? How used ? 3. Describe the 
water vascular system, and its use. 4. What is a crinoid ? 4. Define 
an echinus. 6. How does it differ from star-fishes? 7. What is a 
madreporic plate ? 8. Define a holothurian. 9. How do they breathe ? 
10. What is the position of the madreporic plate ? 11. Describe the 
development of holothurians. 

Branch V. — 1. What are the general characteristics of worms? 
2. Describe a planarian worm. 3. Give its life-history from the egg to 
adult. 4. What fable is there associated with the Gorgius aquaticus ? 

5. Define a rotifer. 6. Why are they termed wheeled? 7. What are 
the polyzoans ? 8 In what do they differ from other worms ? 9. De- 
fine a brachiopod. 10. Give examples. n. Describe a leech. 12. 
What peculiarity is there about their teeth ? 13. Describe the eggs 
and habits of young. 14. Describe an earth-worm. 15. How does it 
crawl, eat, dig, etc. ? 16. For what are they valued by man ? 17. De- 
scribe a marine worm. 18. What do you conceive to be the use of the 
luminous property in worms ? 19. Give examples of luminous forms. 

Branch VI. — 1. What are the general characteristics of mollusks ? 
2. Describe the parts of a clam-shell. 3. Describe the internal organs. 
4. How does the oyster breathe? 5. Describe the nervous system. 6. 
Where are the eyes, and ears? 7. How is the foot of clams used ? 8. 
How does the pecten move ? 9. What are the habits of the pholas ? io. 
Define a univalve. 11. Mention a surface shell. 12. What is an oper- 
culum ? 13. Define the heteropoda. 14. Define an air-breathing gas- 
teropod. 15. Describe th.e land-slugs. 16. What peculiar secretion 
have they? 17. Describe the eyes of the onchidium. 18. What are 
the highest forms of mollusks? 19. Describe the nautilus. 20. Can it 
leave its shell ? 21. Has it an ink-bag? 22. What peculiarity is there 
about its eye ? 23. Describe a squid. 24. How does it differ from the 
preceding forms? 25. How is the siphon used? The ink ? 26. How 
is the body supported ? 27. Describe the octopus. 28. How does the 
argonaut differ from the nautilus ? What fable is there about them ? 
29. Where and how are the eggs placed ? 

Branch VII. — 1. Define the arthropoda. 2. What are trie dis- 
tinctive characteristics of crustaceans ? 3. Describe the skeleton of the 
cray-fish. 4. How does it breathe ? 5. How is molting accomplished? 

6. Describe the metamorphosis of a crab ; mention an exception. 7. 
How are the eggs carried ? 8. Describe the growth of a barnacle. 
9. What are cirri? 10. Mention some peculiarity about the brine- 
shrimp. 11. What crustaceans secrete a bivalve shell? 12. Define the 
decapods. 13. How do the hermits differ from preceding forms ? 



QUESTIONS. 371 

14. Describe the oyster, land, and king crabs. 15. What are the general 
characteristics of insects ? 16. Describe the skeleton ; of what is it 
composed? 17. Describe the internal organs. 18. How do insects 
breathe ? 19. Describe the metamorphosis of an insect. 20. Give an 
example of an incomplete metamorphosis. 21. How does the peripa- 
tus defend itself? 22. Define the myriapoda ; where are the poison- 
glands? 23. Describe the scorpions. Spiders. 24. How is the silk 
produced ? 25. Define the hexapoda, and give examples. 26. Define the 
orthoptera. 27. Define the herrnoptera, and give examples. 28. De- 
scribe the metamorphosis of the froth insect. 29. Mention some insects 
that are particularly valuable to man. 30. Define the coleoptera. 31. 
How does the diving-beetle cling ? 32. Define the diptera. 33. De- 
scribe the metamorphosis of a fly. 34. What are the characteristics of 
the butterflies? 35. How do they differ from moths ? 36. Define the 
hymenoptera. 37. How would you preserve an insect for study? 

Branch VIII. — 1. What are the general characteristics of as- 
cidians ? 2. How do they breathe, eat, move ? 3. Give example of 
compound ascidian. 4. Describe the salpa and appendicularia. 5. 
How are they allied to vertebrates ? 

Branch IX. — 1. Define a vertebrate? 2. Define the fishes. 3. 
Describe the parts of the skeleton. 4. How do the fins compare with 
the limbs of other forms? 5. Why are fishes cold-blooded? 6. 
What is the use of the air-bladder? 7. Describe the manner of breath- 
ing. 8. Describe the internal organs. 9. Do fishes ever leave the 
water? Give examples. 10. What is meant by interspinous bones? 
11. What is meant by a cartilaginous fish? a bony one? 12. What is 
meant by a pouched-gilled fish ? 13. Describe the manner of breath- 
ing in the lung-fishes. 14- In tne amphibious fishes. 

Batrachians. — 1. Define the class batrachia? Give examples. 2. 
How does the skeleton differ from that of other vertebrates? 3. How 
do they breathe? 4 Describe the circulation. 5. Describe the de- 
velopment. 6. What peculiarity is there about the axolotl ? 7. How 
does a siren differ from a frog ? 

Reptiles.— 1. What are the general characteristics of true rep- 
tiles ? 2. In what do they resemble the birds ? 3- How do they dif- 
fer from the batrachians? 4. Is the blood cold? 5. Describe the 
manner of development. 6. Describe the moulting process of snakes. 
7. Describe the color-changes of reptiles. 8. How do the teeth of 
crocodiles and snakes differ ? 9. Are crocodiles found in this country ? 
Where ? and what are their habits ? 

Birds. — 1. Define the birds. 2. How do they differ from the reptiles ? 
3. What modification of the limbs is observed ? 4. Describe the head, 



372 QUESTIONS. 

wings, legs. 5. How do they roost when asleep ? 6. How does the 
circulation differ from that of reptiles ? 7. Why are they warm- 
blooded ? 8. How do they breathe ? 9. How are birds covered ? 10. 
Describe a feather. 11. Describe the development of birds. 12. What 
are the peculiarities of lizard-tailed birds ? 13. Describe the toothed 
birds. 14. What is meant by fiat-breasted birds ? Give an example. 
15. Define a keel-breasted bird, and give examples. 

Mammals. — 1. What is meant by a mammal? 2. How is it 
distinguished from the birds ? reptiles ? 3. Describe the skull. 4. 
What is the use of the backbone ? the ribs ? tail ? 5. Describe the limbs 
and their uses. 6. Describe the digestive process. 7. How does it 
differ from that of birds? 8. Describe the circulation of blood. 9. 
Is there anything about the blood-corpuscles that reminds you of the 
amoeba? 10. Describe the process of breathing. 11. How does it 
differ from that of birds? of reptiles, fishes, insects ? 12. What are the 
uses of the nervous system ? Designate them. 13. Define the develop- 
ment of a mammal. 14. What are the great groups of mammals ? 
15. Define the monotremes. 16. In what do they resemble the rep- 
tiles? 17. How does their development differ from that of other 
mammals? 18. What are the general characteristics of marsupials? 
19. What is a placental mammal? 20. Define the sirenians. 21. 
What are the general characteristics of whales? 22. Do they spout 
water? 23. How is whalebone used? 24. Define the insectivora. 
25. How do their teeth differ from those of other forms? 26. Define 
the bats. 27. How do they pass the winter? 28. How is the wing- 
membrane supported ? 29. What organs for clinging have some bats 
besides claws ? 30. Define a rodent. Give examples. 31. Does the 
porcupine throw its quills ? 32. Define the ungulata. 33. Describe 
the hyrax. 34. What are the characteristics of elephants ? 35. De- 
scribe the tapirs, rhinoceroses, horses. 36. How do the hippopota- 
mus, peccary, etc., differ from them? 37. Define a ruminant. 38. 
Describe the process of digestion. 39. How are the horns of deer 
reproduced ? 40. Is there an exception to their casting ? 41. What 
deer has long canine teeth ? 42. How do the bovida differ from the 
deer family? Give examples. 43. Define the carnivora. 44. How 
do bears often pass the winter? 45. How do the seals differ from 
other carnivora ? 46. Define the primates. 47. How may the monk- 
eys be grouped? 48. What are the characteristics of the higher apes? 
49. Into what general groups is the human race divided ? Give ex- 
amples. 



GLOSSARY 



Abdomen. (Latin, abdo, I conceal.) In mammals, that portion of 
the body-cavity which is separated from the thorax or chest by the 
diaphragm. 

Acalephae. (Greek, akalepJie, a nettle,) Jelly-fishes or sea-nettles 
that sting. 

Acephalous. (Greek, a, without ; kephale, the head.) Without a dis- 
tinct head, as the Lamellibranchiata. 

Actinozoa. (Greek, aktis, a ray ; zobn, animal.) A class of Coelen- 
terata. 

Albumen. (Latin, a/bus, white.) Resembling the white of an egg. 

Alveolus. A hollow cavity forming a socket for the teeth. 

Anchylosis. The growing together of two bones to prevent motion. 

Amoeba. (Greek, amoibe, a change.) One of the Rhizopods that is 
continually changing its shape. 

Amphibia. (Greek, amphi, both ; bios, life.) A class of vertebrates, 
breathing in water while young and in air when mature. The 
term amphibious is applied to fishes, mollusks, etc., that are capable 
of changing the nature of their respiration at will. 

Antennae. (Latin, antenna, the yard of a ship.) The jointed append- 
ages on the heads of insects, crabs, etc. 

Auricle. (Diminutive of auris, an ear.) The cavity of the heart that 
receives the blood and transmits it to the ventricle. 

Asexual. A term applied to animals, as Aphis, page 123, in which 
the reproductive organs are imperfect, and the young are produced 
by budding. 

Artiodactyla. (Greek, ariios, even ; daktulos, finger or toe.) Even- 
toed ungulates. 

Bivalve. (Latin, bis, twice ; valvtz, folding-doors.) Shells with two 
valves. 

Branchiae. (Greek, branchice, gills.) Breathing-organs of fishes, etc. 



374 GLOSSARY. 

Byssus. (Greek, bussos, flax.) Silk anchor-threads of the mussel, 
etc. 

Cilia. (Latin, cilium t an eyelash.) Hair-like organs of Infusoria. 

Coelenterata. (Greek, koilos, hollow ; enteron, an intestine.) 

Didelphia. (Greek, dis, twice ; delp/ms, the womb.) The marsupials. 

Echinodermata. (Greek, echinos, a hedgehog ; derma, skin.) The 
star-fishes, etc. 

Elytra. (Greek, elytron, sheath.) Horny wing-covers of beetles. 

Fauna. (Latin, fanni, rural gods.) The native animals of a certain 
locality. 

Foraminifera. (Latin, foramen, a hole ; fcro, I bear.) Rhizopods 
with perforated shells. 

Gregarinida. (Latin, grex, a flock.) A class of Protozoans. 

Monodelphia. (Greek, monos, single ; delpkus, womb.) The division 
including all the higher orders of mammalia. 

Myriapoda. (Greek, murios, ten thousand ; pons, a foot.) Centi- 
pedes, etc. 

Monotremata. (Greek, monos, single ; trema, an opening.) An order 
of mammalia in which the intestinal, urinary, and genital organs open 
into a common cloaca. 

Oviparous. (Latin, ovum, an egg ; pario, I bring forth.) Applied to 
animals which produce eggs instead of living young. 

Ovipositor. (Latin, ovum, an egg ; pono, I place.) In insects an 
organ by which eggs are deposited in wood, etc. 

Ovoviviparous. (Latin, ovum, an egg ; vivo, I live ; pairo, I bring 
forth.) A term applied to animals which retain the eggs within 
their bodies until they are hatched. 

Pelagic. Living on the high seas in mid-ocean. 

Perissodactyla. (Greek, perissos, uneven ; daktulos, finger.) Uneven- 
toed ungulates. 

Protoplasm. (Greek, protos, first ; plasma, I mold.) The primitive 
basis of organic tissue. 

Pseudopodia. (Greek, pseudos, false ; potis, feet.) Temporary foot- 
like processes of Protozoans. 

Rotifer. (Latin, rota, a wheel ; fero, I bear.) A class of worms. 

Spiracle. (Latin, spiro, to breathe.) The breathing-pores of insects. 

Septa. (Latin, partitions.) Applied to the walls of the chambers of 
the Nautilus, etc. 

Spicula. (Latin, spiculum, a point.) Applied to the pointed bodies 
found in sponges. 

Trachea. (Greek, tracheia, the windpipe.) The tube which con- 
nects the lungs with the mouth. 



GLOSSAR Y. 



375 



Tunicata. (Latin, tunica, a cloak.) A branch of animals covered 
with a leathery coat or case. 

Ungulata. (Latin, ungula, a hoof.) The hoofed animals. 

Univalve. (Latin, umts, one ; valvce, folding-doors.) A shell com- 
posed of a single piece. 

Ventral. (Latin, venter, the stomach.) Belonging to the lower sur- 
face of the body. 

Ventricle. (Latin, venter.} One of the cavities of the heart that 
receives the blood from the auricle. 

Vacuole. (Latin, vacuus, empty.) Cavities in the bodies of Pioto- 
zoans. 

Viviparous. (Latin, vivtis, alive ; and J>ario, I bring forth.) Applied 
to animals which produce their young alive. 



INDEX 



Aard-vark, 305. 
Acara, 185. 
Acarina, 104. 
Acipenser, 166. 
Actinia, 21. 
Acienta, 9. 
Actinozoa, 21. 
Adder, 221. 
.'Epiornis, 235. 
Ai, 304. 
Albatross, 244. 
Alca impennis, 240. 
Alligator, 222. 
Alytes, 201. 
Ambergris, 310. 
Amblyopsis spelaeus, 171. 
Amblyornis, 284. 
Amblyrhynchus, 214. 
Amblystoma, 198. 
Amceba, 6. 
Ampelis, 287. 
Amphibia, 195. 
Amphioxus, 151. 
Amphisbaena, 218. 
Amphiuma, 198. 
Anabas, 184. 
Anableps, 184. 
Anas, 248. 
Angler, 191. 
Anguilla, 168. 
Animalcule, bell, 10. 
Annulata, 47. 
Anolis, 214. 
Ant, 137. 
Ant-eater, 304. 

spiny, 298. 
Antedon, 35. 
Antelope, prong-horn, 338. 



Antennarius, 1S9. 

nest of, 190. 
Anthropoidea, 358. 
Anura, 200. 
Ape, 359. 
Aphis, 124. 
Aphis-lion, 114. 
Aphodes, 168. 
Appendicularia, 149. 
Apteryx, 234. 
Apus, 84. 
Arachnida, 104. 
Araneina, 106. 
Archaeopteryx, 232. 
Architeuthis, 71. 
Ardea, 256. 
Argali, 336. 
Arges, 170. 
Argonaut?, argo, 73. 
Argyropelacus, 175. 
Arius, 169. 
Armadillo, 305. 
Arthropoda, 76. 
Aitiodactyla, 331. 
Ascetta, 12. 
Ascidians, 145. 
Aspredo, 169. 
Ass, 330. 
Asterias, 33, 36. 
Asteroidea, 36. 
Ateles, 359. 
Atoll, 27. 
Attus, in. 
Auk, 240. 
Aurelia, 18. 

Australian lung-fish, 167. 
Axolotl, 198. 
Aye-aye, 356. 



378 



INDEX. 



Baboon, 359. 
Badger. 346. 
Bakeniceps, 255. 
Bandicoot 301. 
Barnacle, 81. 
Bass, 179. 
Bat, 316. 
Batrachia, 195. 
Bear, 344. 
Beaver, 322. 
Bee, 141. 
Beetles, 124. 
Big-horn, 336. 
Bird of Paradise 281. 
Birds, 225. 

eggs, 232. 

feathers, 230. 

migration of, 293 

songs of, 232. 
Birgos, 92. 
Bison, 336. 
Bittern, 257. 
Blackbird, 282. 
Blenny, 186. 
Blind-fish, 171. 
Bluebird, 290. 
Boar, 331. 
Bobolink, 283. 
Bos, 339. 
Box-fish, 192. 
Brachiopoda, 46. 
Branchiopoda, 82. 
Branchipus, 84. 
Branta, 249. 
Brush-turkey, 260 
Bubo, 268. 
Bufo, 201. 
Bug, 120. 
Bulimus, 66. 
Bustard, 257. 
Butcher-bird, 289. 
Butterfly, 134. 
Buzzard, 264. 
Byssus, 58. 

Caddis- worm, 1:3. 
Callichthys, 169. 
Callorhynchus, 165. 
Camel, 340. 
Cancer pagurus, 91. 
Canis, 350. 
Capybara, 318. 
Carcharias, 161; 



Caribou, 333. 
Carinatse, 237. 
Carnivora, 342. 
Carp, 171. 
Cassowary, 236. 
Cat, 351. 
Catfish, 169. 
Cebus, 358. 
Cell, 3- 

Centipede, 102. 
Cephalopoda, 69. 
Cephalopterus, 165. 
Ceradotus, 167. 
Cercaria, 43. 
Cei-vus, 331. 
Cetacea, 309. 
Chalk, 7. 
Chameleon, 212. 
Chelifer, 105. 
Chelonia, 218. 
Chiasmodus, 188. 
Chilognatha, 103. 
Chilopoda, 103. 
Chimsera, 165. 
Chimpanzee, 361. 
Chinch-bug, 121. 
Chipmunk, 320. 
Chiromys, 356. 
Chiroptera, 315. 
Chromis, 179. 
Cicada, 122. 
Cirripedia, 8 1 
Clam, 52. 
Clepsine, 47. 
Clio, 69. 
Cleodora, 69. 
Clupea, 172. 
Coati, 344. 

Cobra de capello, 209. 
Cochineal insect, 123. 
Cod, 187. 
Ccecilia, 200. 
Ccelenterates, 15. 
Coleoptera, 124. 
Comb-bearers, 31. 
Condor, 264. 
Condylura, 313. 
Congo snake, 198. 
Copperhead, 207. 
Corallium rubrum, 29. 
Coral polyps, 23. 

reefs, 26. 
Cormorant, 241. 



INDEX. 



379 



Coryphaena, 181. 
Cougar, 352. 
Cow, sea, 307. 
Cowry, 63. 
Coyote, 350. 
Crabs, 91. 
Cray-fish, 89. 
Crane, 251. 
Cranchia, 71. 
Cricket, 119. 
Crinoidea, 35. 
Crocodilia, 222. 
Crow, 280. 
Crustacea, 76. 
Ctenophora, 31. 
Cuckoo, 271. 
Curassow, 261. 
Curlew, 251. 
Cuttle-fish bone, 72. 
Cyclops, 82. 
Cypraea moneta, 63. 
Cyprinus, 1 71. 

Dace, 171. 

Daphnia, 84. 
Dasypus, 305. 
Decapoda, S6. 
Deer, 331. 

Virginian, 333. 
Dendrceca, 293. 
Dentalium, 68. 
Devil-fish, 72. 
Dibranchiata, 70. 
Dicotyles, 331. 
Didelphidae, 299. 
Didus, 263. 
Dinornis, 235. 
Diomedea, 244. 
Dipnoi, 167. 
Diptera, 126. 
Discophora, 17. 
Dodo, 263. 
Dog, 298. 
Dog-fish, 160. 
Dolphin, 181. 
Doris, 65. 
Dove, 262. 
Dragon-fly, 112. 
Dromia, 80. 
Drum-fish, 129. 
Duck-bill, 298. 
Duck, 248. 
Dugong, 30S. - 



Eagle, 266. 
Earth-worm, 48. 
Echeneis, 178. 
Echidna, 298. 
Echinodermata, 33. 
Echinoidea, 38. 
Echinus, 3S. 
Edentata, 303. 
Eel, 168. 
Elaps, 209. 
Elasmobranchii, 158. 
Elater, 124. 
Elephant, 327. 
Elk, 334. 
Emeu, 236. 
Entomostraca, 82. 
Eohippus, 330. 
Eolis, 65. 
Epeira, no. 
Equus, 329. 
Ermine, 349. 
Esox, 176. 
Estheria, 91. 
Euplectella, 13. 
Eupomotis, 179. 
Eurypharynx, 175. 
Eutaenia, 211. 

Falcon, 266. 
Feather, 231. 
Felis, 351. 
Fierasfer, 188. 
Finch, 285. 
Fisher, 348. 
Fishes, 154. 

bony, 168. 

viviparous, 158. 

luminous, 173. 
Fissipedia, 344. 
Flagellata, 8. 
Flamingo, 250. 
Flat-worms, 43. 
Flea, 128. 
Flounder, 188. 
Fluke-worms, 43. 
Fly-catcher, 279. 
Fly, 126. 
Flying-fish, 176. 
Foraminifera, 6. 
Fox, 349. 
Frigate-bird, 247. 
Frog, 204. 
Fungia, 24. 



38o 



INDEX. 



Gadus, 187. 
Galeopithecus, 315. 
Gall-fly, 136. 
Gallinae, 257. 
Gallinule, 252. 
Gallus, 257. 
Gannet, 246. 
Ganoidei, 166. 
Gar, alligator, 168. 
Gar, silver, 166, 176. 
Gardner-bird, 284. 
Gare-fowl, 240. 
Garpike, 168. 
Gasteropoda, 60. 
Gasterosteus, 177. 
Gecko, 214. 
Genetta, 351. 
Gibbon, 360. 
Gila monster, 216, 217. 
Giraffe, 340. 
Glass-snake, 216. 
Glow-worm, 124. 
Glutton, 348. 
Goat, mountain, 337. 
Goose-barnacle, 82. 
Gordius aquaticus, 44. 
Gorgonia flabellum, 30. 
Gorilla, 360-2. 
Gourami, 185. 
Grapsus, 94. 
Grasshopper, 118. 
Grebe, 242. 
Gregarina gigantea, 7. 
Gregarinida, 7. 
Grilse, 172. 
Grouse, 258. 
Guan, 252. 
Guillemot, 240. 
Guinea-hen, 259. 
Gull, 228, 244. 
Gulo, 348. 
Gymnotus, 170. 

Haddock, 188. 
Hsemulon, 179. 
Hag-fish, 152. 
Hake, 188. 
Haliotis, 61. 
Harpodon, 173. 
Hare, 317. 
Helix, 66. 
Hell-bender, 197. 
Heloderma, 216, 217. 



Helocephali, 165. 

Hemiptera, 120. 

Hermit-crab, 90, 91. 

Heron, 256. 

Hermiaster, 39. 

Herring, 172. 

Hexapoda, in. 

Hinney, 330. 

Hibernation, 134, 167, 202, 222. 

Hippocampus, 191. 

Hippopotamus, 331. 

Histiophorus, 182. 

Holothuroidea, 35. 

Homo, 364. 

Hornbill, 274. 

Horns, 333. 

Horn-tail, 136. 

Horse, 330. 

Horse-shoe crab, 95. 

House-fly, 126. 



Humming-bird, 
Hydra, 15. 
Hydrozoa, 15. 
Hyla, 202. 
Hylobates, 102. 
Hymenoptera, ] 
Hyrax, 326. 



108, 274. 



36. 



Ianthina, 62. 
Ichneumon-fly, 137. 
Idotaea, 85. 
Idyia, 31. 
Iguana, 213. 
Infusoria, 7. 
Insectivora, 312. 
Insects, 97. 
Ipnops, 173. 

Jager, 245. 

Kallima, 135. 
Kangaroo, 301. 
Katydid, 119. 
Killer, 310. 
Kincajou, 344. 
King-crab, 95. 
King-fisher, 272. 
Kiwi-kiwi, 234. 

Labyrinthici, 184. 
Lacertilia, 212. 
Lamellibranchiata, 51. 
Lamp-fish, 173. 



INDEX. 



381 



Lampreys, 153. 
Lamp-shells, 46. 
Lancelet, 151. 
Lark, 279. 
Lasso-cell, 22. 
Leech, 47. 

land, 47. 
Lemming, 324. 
Lemur, 356. 
Lepidoptera, 13a. 
Lepidosiren, 167. 
Lepidosteus, 168. 
Leptocardii, 151. 
Lepus, 317. 
Lernaea, 83. 
Limnseus, 65. 
Limulus moluccanus, 95. 
Lir.gula, 46. 
Lizards, 212. 

horned, 213. 
Llama, 342. 
Lobster, 87, 88. 
Locust, 119. 
Loon, 242. 
Lophius, 191. 
Lori, 357 
Lump-fish, 186. 
Lung-fish, 167. 
Lutra, 347. 
Lycosa, 106. 
Lynx, 352. 
Lyre-bird, 279. 

Macacus, 359. 
Mackerel, 181. 
Macrura, 86. 
Madreporic plate, 34. 
Madreporaria, 24. 
Mseandrina, convexa, 25. 
Malapterus, 170. 
Malacopoda, 102. 
Maleo, 261. 
Mammalia, 294. 
Mammoth, 327. 
Man, 364. 

difference from apes, 364. 

races of, 364. 
Manatee, 307. 

Steller's, 307. 
Manis, 307. 
Mantis, 116. 
Marmoset, 358. 
Marsipobranchii, 152. 



Marsupialia, 299. 

Marten, 348. 

Marine-worm, 49. 

Mastodon, 327. 

May-fly, 112. 

Megapodius, 261. 

Menhaden, 172. 

Menopoma, 197. 

Mephitis, 346. 

Mesohippus, 330. 

Metazoa, 2. 

Mias, 361. 

Millepedes, 103. 

Millepora, 16. 

Mimetes, 361. 

Mink, 349. 

Minnow, 156. 

Miohippus, 330. 

Mite, 104. 

Moa, 235. 

Mocking-bird, 291, 

Mola, 193. 

Mole, 313. 

Mollusca, 51. 

Mollymauk, 2440 

Monad, 8. 

Moner, 4. 

Monkey, 355. 

Monocaulus, 17. 

Monodon, 311. 

Monotremes, 297. 

Moose, 334. 

Mosquito, 129. 

Mother Carey's chickens, 243. 

Moths, 130. 

Mound-bird, 260, 261. 

Mouse, 319. 

Mouse-birds, 281. 

Mud-dauber, 140. 

Mule, 330. 

Mus, 319. 

Musk-rat, 324. 

Musk-sheep. 337. 

Mussel, 56. 

Mustela, 346. 

Muzir, 330. 

Mygale, 107, 108. 

Myodes, 324. 

Myriopoda, 102. 

Myrmecobius, 301. 

Myrmeleon, 114. 

Mytilus edulis, 56. 

Myxine, 152. 



382 



INDEX. 



Narwhal, 310. 
Nasua, 344. 
Nauplius, 80. 
Nautilus, 69. 
Nebalia, 84. 
Necturus, 197. 
Nematelminthes, 44. 
Nematognathi, 169. 
Nephila, 109. 
Nereis virens, 49. 
Neuroptera, 112. 
Newt, 199. 
Night-hawk, 296. 
Noctiluca, 8. 
Nototrema, 203. 
Nucleus, 1. 
Nyctea, 268. 

Octopus, 72. 
Ocypoda, 94. 
Odontornithes, 233. 
Onchidium, 68. 
Ophiacantha, 36. 
Ophidia, 205. 
Opossum, 299. 
Oi-ang, 360. 
Orca, 310. 
Oriole, 282. 
Ornithodelphia, 297. 
Ornithorhynchus, 298. 
Orohippus, 330. 
Orthoptera, 116. 
Osprey, 267. 
Ostrich, African, 235. 

South American, 235. 
Otter, 347. 
Ovibos, 336. 
Ovipositor, 98. 
Ovis, 336. 
Owl, 268. 
Ox, 339. 
Ox-biter, 282. 
Oyster, 54. 

Palapteryx, 235. 
Pangolin, 306. 
Panther, 352. 
Paper-nautilus, 70. 
Paradisea, 280. 
Paramecium, 9. 
Parr, 172. 
Parrot, 268. 
Partridge, 257. 



Pauropoda, 103. 

Peccary, 331. 

Pecten, 54. 

Pedicellaria, 38. 

Pediculati, 1S9. 

Pedipaipi, 105. 

Pekan, 348. 

Pelican, 246. 

Pennatula, 30. 

Pentacrinus caput-medusa, 35. 

Pentacta, 40. 

Perca, 155. 

Perch, 179. 
nest of, 179. 

Peripatus, 102. 

Perissodactyla, 328. 

Periophthalmus, 6S, 186. and front- 
ispiece. 

Petaurus, 246. 

Petrel, 243. 

Petromyzon, 153. 

Phasma, 117. 

Philohela, 252. 

Phocidae, 342. 

Phcenicopterus, 250. 

Pholas, 58. 

Phosphorescence, 31, 92, 8, 124, 
32, 147, 67. 

Phyllocarida, 84. 

Physalia, 20. 

Pig, 331. 

Pigeon, wild, 262. 
Pilot-fish, 181. 
Pinnipedia, 342. 
Pinnotheres, 93. 
Pipe-fish, 191. 
Pisces, 154. 
Plagiostomi, 159. 
Planarian worms, 43. 
Plant-louse, 123. 
Platyhelminthes, 43. 
Plectognathi, 192. 
Pleurobrachia, 31. 
Plover, 251. 
Podiceps, 242. 
Podocerus, 85. 
Podura, 112. 
Polyodon folium, 166. 
Polypterus, 167. 
Polyzoa, 45. 
Porcupine, 319. 
Porcupine-fish, 193. 
Porifera, 11. 



INDEX. 



383 



Pontes, 24. 

Porpoise, 211. 

Porpita, 21. 

Portuguese man-of-war, 20. 

Prairie-dog, 321. 

Prawn, 86. 

Primates, 355. 

Pristis, 163. 

Proboscidea, 326. 

Prosimi;e, 356. 

Proteus, 179, 196. 

Protozoa, 4. 

Ptarmigan, 259. 

Pterygolus, 96. 

Puffin, 241. 

Pulmonata, 65. 

Puma, 352. 

Pygopodes, 239. 

Pyrosoma, 147. 

Python, 209. 

Quail, 258. 

Rabbit, 317. 
Raccoon, 344. 
Radiolaria, 6. 
Rail, 252. 
Rana, 204. 
Rangifer, 333. 
Rat, 323. 
Ratite, 234. 
Rattlesnake, 207. 
Rays, 163. 
Redia, 44. 
Reindeer, 333. 
Remora, 178. 
Reptilia, 204. 
Rhea, 235. 
Rhinichthys, 171. 
Rhinoceros, 328. 
Rhinodon, 163. 
Rhizopoda, 5. 
Rhynchocephalia, 222. 
Rhytina, 307. 
Ribbon-fish, 178. 
Robin, 291. 
Rodentia, 317. 
Rotalia, 6. 
Rotifers, 45. 
Round-worms, 44. 
Ruff, 253. 
Ruminantia, 331. 



Sable, 347. 
Salamander, 198. 
Salmon, 172. 
Salpa, 148. 
Sandpiper, 254. 
Sand-wasp, i_ I. 
Saururse, 232. 
Saw-fish, 163. 
Scaphopoda, 68. 
Scink, 215. 
Sciurus, 320. 
Scolopendra, 103. 
Scomber, 181. 
Scopelus, 173. 
Scorpion, 105. 

false, 105. 

whip, 106. 
Sculpin, 169, i£6. 
Sea-anemones, 22, 

cow, 306. 

cucumbers, 40. 

fan, 30. 

horse, 192. 

lion, 343. 

squirts, 145. 
Seal, 343. 
Selache, 163 
Semnopithecus, 359. 
Septa, 22. 
Serpulae, 49. 
Sertularia, 17. 
Sewellel, 323. 
Shad, 172. 
Sharks, 158. 

basking, 161. 

fresh- water, 1 6 1. 

hammer-headed, 160. 

thresher, 161. 
Sheath-bill, 254. 
Sheep, 336. 
Ship-worm, 59, 
Shrew, 312. 
Shrike, 289. 
Shrimp, 86. 
Simia, 361. 
Silk-wonn, 131. 
Silurus, 169. 
Siphonophora, 20. 
Siren, 196. 
Sirenia, 306. 
Skate, 163. 
Skua, 245. 
Skunk, 346 



3^4 



INDEX. 



Sloth, 304. 
Slug, 67. 
Snakes, 206. 

poisonous, 206. 

viviparous, 206. 
Snipe, 252. 
Solaster, 37. 
Solen, 56. 

Sparrow, English, 230, 286 
Spermaceti, 211. 
Sphargis, 219. 
Sphenisci, 237. 
Sphinx, 133. 
Spicules, 11. 
Spider, 106. 

bird, 108. 

garden, 109. 

trap-door, 107. 
Spirula, 70. 
Sponges, 11. 
Spoon-bill, 254. 
Spoon-bill fish, 166. 
Spring-tails, 11 1. 
Squalus Americanus, 160. 
Squid, 71. 
Squilla, 85. 
Star-fish, 36. 
Stegopocles, 246. 
Stickleback, 177. 
Stilt, 251. 
Sting-ray, 164. 
Stoat, 349. 
Stomapoda, 85. 
Storks, 255. 
Struthio, 236. 
Studis, 172. 
Sturgeon, 166. 
Suctoria, 9. 
Sun-fish, 193. 
Surinam toad, 203. 
Swallow, 286. 
Swan, 249. 
Swift, 277. 
Sword-fish, 182. 
Sycon, 13. 
Synapta, 40. 

Tadpole, 201. 
Tanager, 286. 
Tape-worms, 244. 
Tapir, 328-9. 
Tarantula, 106, 107. 
Tautog, 185. 



Taxidea, 346. 
Teleocephali, 170. 
Teleostei, 168. 
Teredo, 59. 
Tern, 241. 
Testudo, 221. 
Tetrabranchiata, 69. 
Tetradecapoda, 85. 
Thrasher, 161. 
Thread-worms, 43. 
Thrush, 291. 
Thysanura, ill. 
Tick, 104. 
Toad, 201. 

flying, 202. 

Surinam, 203. 

luminous, 203. 
Torpedo, 164. 
Tortoise, 195. 
Tortugas, 27. 
Toucan, 273. 
Trachystomata, 196. 
Tree-toad, 203. 
Trepang, 40. 
Trichina spiralis, 44. 
Tridacna, 57. 
Trilobite, 95. 
Triton, 199. 
Tritonia, 65. 
Trogon, 271. 
Trout, 172. 
Trunk-fish, 192. 
Tunicata, 145. 
Turkey, wild, 259. 
Turtle, 218. 

green, 220, 

hawkbill, 221. 

loggerhead, 220. 

marine, 219. 
Tyrian dye, 64. 



Umbellularia, 30. 
Umbrella-bird, 289. 
Ungulata, 315. 

odd-toed, 328. 

even-toed, 331. 
Unio, 56. 
Urchin, sea, 38. 
Uria, 240. 
Urodela, 197. 
Urticina, 23. 
Uvella, 8. 



INDEX. 



385 



Velella, 21. 

Venus's flower-basket, 13. 

Vermes, 42. 

Vertebrates, 150. 

Viper, 206. 

Viverra, 351. 

Vorticella, 9. 

Vulpes, 349. 

Vultures, 264. 

Walking-leaf, 117. 

stick, 117. 
Walrus, 344, 345. 
Wapiti, 334. 
Wasp, paper, 141. 
Weasel, 348. 
Weaver-bird, 2SS. 
Whale, 309. 
Wheel-animalcules, 45. 
Whelk, 63. 



Whip-poor-will, 276. 
White ant, 114. 
Willemoesia, 86. 
Wolf, 299. 

Tasmanian, 303. 
Wolverene, 348. 
Wombat, 302. 
Woodchuck, 321. 
Woodcock, 252. 
Woodpecker, 229, 274. 
Worms, 42. 
Wren, 290. 

Xiphias, 182. 

Zoarces, 158. 

Zoea, 81. 

Zoological classification, 2. 

Zoology, definition of, I. 



17 



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